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Diagram reproductive organs of laying hen. 
I, Ovary, with minute ovules; 2, yolk sacs; 3, suture lines; 5, empty 
yolk sac; 6, funnel opening into oviduct; 8, yolk in oviduct; 9, albumen- 
secreting region; 10, the same; 11, albumen being secreted; 12, yolk passing 
through oviduct; 13, germinal disc; 14, uterus; 15, large intestine; 16, 
isthmus; 17, glands of uterus; 18, complete egg; 19, vagina; 20, cloaca; 21, 
egg shell; 22, albumen; 23, yolk; 24, chalaza. 



COMMERCIAL 

POULTRY RAISING 



A THOROUGHLY PRACTICAL AND COMPLETE 
REFERENCE WORK FOR THE AMATEUR, FAN- 
CIER OR GENERAL FARMER ^ ^ ESPECIALLY 
ADAPTED TO THE COMMERCIAL POULTRYMAN 



Containing a Description of All Recognized Breeds of Fowls, Including 
Turkeys, Ducks, Geese and Pigeons; Special Chapters on Artificial 
Incubation and Brooding, Diseases of Poultry and Their Treat- 
ment, Breeding for Increased Egg Production, Feeding For- 
mulas, Fattening and Marketing, also Numerous Working 
Plans and Descriptions of the Most Improved Types 
of Houses, Yards, Labor-Saving Appliances 
and Equipment Generally 



By 

H. ARMSTRONG ROBERTS 

Author of "The Farmer His Own Builder," Etc. 



WITH OVER THREE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS 



PHILADELPHIA 

DAVID McKAY, PUBLISHER 

WASHINGTON SQUARE 
1918 






Copyright, 191 8, by 
David McKay 



JAN -2 1919 
©CLA511167 



To 

Jfl. 9. &. 

WHOSE ENCOURAGEMENT WAS A 

CONSTANT SOURCE OF INSPIRATION THIS 

WORK IS AFFECTIONATELY 

INSCRIBED 



INTRODUCTION 

There are numerous poultry books on the market. Some are 
valuable works, except that they are out of date. Others have 
been written by persons who knew more about theory than of 
practice. Still others were printed because the author had a 
system to advocate, a farm to advertise, or an axe to grind. 
Obviously, in reading these so-called systems the beginner gen- 
erally obtains erroneous ideas, which sooner or later bring about 
costly mistakes, often failure. 

In the chapters that follow the author has no hobbies to ride, 
no theories to advance, nothing to offer, in fact, except the prac- 
tical information which he has acquired from many years of 
actual experience raising fowls on a commercial scale, and from 
the associations of other poultrymen with whom he has come in 
contact in a business or friendly way. His effort has been to 
give facts and state principles clearly, so as to establish a solid 
foundation for the study of poultry culture. The real study, 
of course, commences with the actual work with the fowls, and 
cannot be acquired from the printed page alone. 

No phase of agriculture or animal husbandry has made such 
enormous progress in the past thirty years as poultry culture. 
Consequently, literature written on this subject a quarter of a 
century ago, or even a decade ago, is now mostly obsolete. Not 
that fowls have changed their habits to such an extent, but 
because we have learned more about their habits, and how to 
derive the greatest benefits from them at the least possible 
cost. 

Poultry raising on a commercial scale could not be attempted 
on the methods practised by our grandfathers. It was not until 
the invention and perfection of appliances for the artificial rear- 
ing of little chicks in large numbers that poultry keeping really 



viii INTRODUCTION 

passed the "pin money" stage. Even then, it was not until we 
learned something about the scientific manner of feeding, breed- 
ing and housing the fowls that our efforts were assured any 
degree of success from the standpoint of dollars and cents. We 
have long known how to keep fowls; but it has been compara- 
tively recent that we found out how to make the fowls keep us. 

There is money to be made from poultry. There is a living to 
be made from it, and a good living. Some claim there are for- 
tunes to be had from hens. The author begs leave to differ 
with this last statement, or rather to qualify it. Fortunes might 
be made from chickens if it were possible to look after them, 
personally, in large enough numbers; but this is quite out of the 
question. Very large flocks necessitate the employment of help, 
and it is the uncertainty or incompetence of this help that makes 
success with tens of thousands of birds more or less dependent 
upon chance. 

The author has purposely avoided all reference to "big stories 
of big profits," likewise the fads and fancies of poultry keeping, 
which have brought disaster to so many beginners. He has 
aimed to show that hard work is necessary, that the caretaker 
must be always on the job, that some of the tasks are not as 
pleasant as they might be, that common sense is required above 
theoretical training, that disappointments and mistakes are to 
be expected, and that it is no get-rich-quick scheme, but a safe, 
sane, practical business enterprise, and as such it must be con- 
ducted. Where figures are quoted, especially in respect to profits, 
if anything the author has been too conservative. These figures, 
however, are based on prices prevailing before our entrance into 
the European War. Success does not fall into the lap of the 
poultryman; he must go out and dig for it. And if he digs hard 
enough, he is sure to be rewarded. 

As previously inferred, the author has read most of the litera- 
ture written about poultry, and having found it either obsolete, 
incomplete or utterly fallacious, he has endeavored to prepare a 
work that is the most up-to-date, comprehensive, practical 
guide-book of its kind. Economy and efficiency are the under- 



INTRODUCTION ix 

lying motives of every chapter. They are what he conceives to 
be the cornerstones of success with poultry. 

Acknowledgment is herewith made to The Country Gentle- 
man and Public Ledger, in which publications most of these 
chapters have appeared, for the rights to publish them in book 
form. Appreciation is also acknowledged to those who kindly 
submitted photographs for reproduction as illustrations. 

H. Armstrong Roberts 
Philadelphia, 1918 



CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

I. American Poultry Industry I 

II. Analyzing the Different Breeds 1 1 

III. Egg Breeds 23 

IV. Meat Breeds 46 

V. Dual-Purpose Breeds 53 

VI. Ornamental Fowls, Games and Bantams 70 

VII. A Business Enterprise 82 — 

VIII. Keeping Records 95 

IX. Principles of Poultry House Construction 109 

X. Interior Arrangement of Buildings 132 

XI. Poultry House Appliances 144 

XII. Devices for Doors and Gates 153 

XIII. Trap Nests 166 

XIV. Feeding 175 

XV. Available Grains and Meals 193 

XVI. Animal and Green Foods 215 

XVII. Artificial Incubation 235 

XVIII. Selecting Hatching Eggs 256 

XIX. Testing Eggs During Incubation 263 

XX. Day-Old-Chick Industry 270 

XXI. Natural Incubation 283 

XXII. Artificial Brooding 295 

XXIII. Feeds for Baby Chicks. . . 312 

XXIV. Care of Young Stock 325 

XXV. Breaking Up Broodiness 339 

XXVI. Surplus Cockerels 347 

XXVII. Caponizing 358 

XXVIII. Breeding Principles 372 

XXIX. Development of the Egg 390 

XXX. Market Eggs 400 

XXXI. Selling Eggs Advantageously 426 — - 

XXXII. Preserving Eggs 436 

XXXIII. By-Products of Poultry 445 

XXXIV. Preparing Birds for the Show 457 

XXXV. Ailments and Diseases ■ 471 

XXXVI. Crop Bound 486 

XXXVII. Worms 495 

XXXVIII. White Diarrhea 502 

XXXIX. Parasites and Pests, 509 

XL. Ducks 519 

XLI. Geese 528 

XLII. Turkeys 538 

XLIII. Guinea Fowls 554 

XLIV. Pigeons 562 

Index 573 

xi 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

IG ' Fowl's reproductive organs • • Frontispiece 

i. Petaluma poultry district 2 

2. Chart poultry production in U. S. 4 

3. Hen with a brood of chicks 5 

4. Poultry and farm crops 

5. Model backyard poultry plant lo 

6. Light Brahmas '■ l < 

7. White Wyandottes l ° 

8. White Plymouth Rocks J 9 

9. White-Laced Red Cornish Fowls 2I 

10. Single Comb White Leghorns 24 

11. Single Comb Brown Leghorns 2 5 

12. Rose-Comb Buff Leghorns 27 

13. Lakenvelders 

14. Single Comb Black Minorcas 3" 

15 Single Comb White Minorcas 3* 

16. White-Faced Black Spanish 32 

17. Andalusians 34 

18. Single Comb Mottled Anconas 35 

19. Golden Spangled Hamburgs 3° 

20. Sicilian Buttercups. 37 

21. White Houdans 3 

22. Silver Campines 39 

23. White Aseels J" 

24. Long-Tailed Yokohamas : 4^ 

25. Silver Laced Polish 43 

26. Brahmas jl 

27. White Cochins ^ 

28. Partridge Cochins ;> 

29. White Langshans j> 

30. Barred Plymouth Rocks ^ 

31. Columbian Plymouth Rocks 55 

32. Silver Wyandottes 5 

33. Columbian Wyandottes ^ 

34. Rhode Island Reds * $? 

35. Black Javas ' gj 

36. Buckeyes ^ 2 

37. Black Orpingtons - 

38. White Orpingtons + 

39. Silver-Gray Dorkings ^ 

40. Rose Comb White Dorkings ™ 

41. White Faverolles 6 ^ 

42. La Fleche Fowls 6 

43. Crevecoeurs 

xiii 



xiv ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

44. White-Crested Black Polish , . 71 

45. Bearded Golden Polish 72 

46. Non-Bearded White Polish 73 

47. Silver Duckwing Games. . 74 

48. Red Pyle Game Bantams 75 

49. White Cornish Fowls 76 

50. Silver Sebright Bantams 77 

51. Rose-Comb White Bantams 78 

52. White Cochin Bantams 79 

53. White Japanese Bantams 80 

54. Colony houses on range 83 

55. Centralized plant 84 

56. Laying house in grove of trees 85 

57. Box-packed poultry for shipment 87 

58. Arch of poultry success 88 

59. Broiling chickens packed for shipment 90 

60. Roasting chickens packed for shipment 92 

61. Dressed poultry in cartons 93 

62. Wagon load of live poultry 96 

63. Suburbanite's poultry plant 97 

64. Fowls on free range 98 

65. "A good hatch"'. 99 

66. Aluminum leg bands 100 

67. Making incision for wing band 101 

68. Wing band in place. 102 

69. Methods of marking toes of chicks 103 

70. Laying house on sloping ground 105 

71. Outdoor feed hopper 106 

72. Substantial set of poultry buildings 107 

73. Plans for medium-size hen house no 

74. Site for sanitary yards. . .' in 

75. Diagram angle of sun's rays 112 

76. Diagram yard arrangement 113 

77. Diagram types of pens 114 

78. Poultry house under construction 115 

79. Diagram types of roofs 116 

80. Interior continuous laying house 117 

81. Diagram floor construction 118 

82. Cross-section model hen house 120 

83. Floor plan model hen house 121 

84. Front elevation model hen house 122 

85. End view model hen house 123 

86. Framing for continuous laying house 124 

87. Diagram arrangement colony house on range . . 125 

88. Wire-covered yards 127 

89. Section intensive broiler plant 129 

90. Floor plans intensive broiler plant 130 

91. House at Wisconsin College 131 

92. Interior laying house divided into pens 133 

93. Section of laying house 20 feet deep 134 

94. Floor plan of 20-foot house 135 

95. Interior arrangement house 136 

96. Section laying house 16 feet deep 137 



ILLUSTRATIONS xv 

Fig. Page 

97. Front elevation 16-foot house 138 

98. Commercial flock Leghorns 140 

99. Elevated walk in front of house 141 

100. Slatted openings for ventilation. , 142 

101. Diagram arrangement roosts and nests 145 

102. Roosting compartment 146 

103. Floor plan well-arranged house 147 

104. Perches hinged upward 148 

105. Shelf for water fountain 149 

106. Plans for dry mash hopper 151 

107. Indoor mash hopper 152 

108. " In for the night " 154 

109. Plans for "self-rising door" 156 

1 10. Maryland poultry farm building 157 

111. Inexpensive colony house 158 

112. Details "self-closing door" 161 

113. Hook for catching fowls 162 

114. Device for securing open door 163 

115. Stake for securing open door 164 

1 16. Home-made trap nest 167 

117. Plans Storrs' trap nest 168 

118. Corner of well-designed laying house 169 

119. Plans of Maine trap nest 17° 

120. Single-compartment trap nest I7 2 

121. Two-compartment trap nest 173 

122. Feed house in center of laying house 176 

123. Feed carrier suspended from track 178 

124. Automatic feed hopper 180 

125. Outdoor feed hopper on skids 182 

126. Overhead rail system for feed 185 

127. Designs for feed hoppers 188 

128. Outdoor feed hopper 19° 

129. Low-wheeled truck for feeding range I9 1 

130. Growing stock on alfalfa pasture 195^ 

131. Fowls scratching 197 

132. Chick fountains 199 

133. Feeding time in a fattening station 201 

134. Feeding battery 202 

135. Poor feeder 203 

136. Good type of feeder 203 

137. Farm flock on range 204 

138. Chickens in feeding batteries 209 

139. Grading poultry in packing house ' 213 

140. Spading over soil in poultry runs 216 

141. Milk-feeding experiments ■ 219 

142. Equipment for chicks' range 222 

143. Gathering greenstuffs 224 

144. Feed oats and sprouted oats 226 

145. Commercial fattening plant 228 

146. Home-made rack for sprouting oats 230 

147. Killing room in a Western packing house 233 

148. Small single-tray incubator 236 

149. Double-tray lamp incubator 237 



xvi ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. P age 

.150. Diagram hot-air incubator . • .' 2 3^ 

1-51. Egg tray and thermometer 240 

152. Double-deck coal-burning incubator 242 

153. Interior incubator cellar 243 

154. Erection of mammoth incubator 244 

155. Completion of mammoth incubator 245 

156. Well-built incubator heater 247 

157. Diagram incubator heater and lamp • • 248 

158. Gas heater for incubator 249 

159. Design for concrete incubator cellar 251 

160. Oil-burning lamp approved by fire underwriters 252 

161. Mammoth incubator with trays arranged in tiers 253 

162. Doing the work of four hens with an incubator 257 

163. Sectional view coal-burning incubator 258 

164. Plans for hatching egg cabinet 260 

165. End view of egg cabinet 261 

166. Turning and cooling eggs for hatching 264 

167. Plans for electric egg tester 265 

168. Appearance of hatching eggs through tester 266 

169. Testing hatching eggs 267 

170. Simple egg-testing outfit • 268 

171. Diagram showing growth of air cell 269 

172. Double-deck mammoth incubators in large hatchery -. 271 

173. Interior of a California hatchery 273 

174. Incubator room in a large hatchery 274 

175. 10,000 chicks ready for shipment 275 

176. Well-designed incubator building 276 

177. Hatchery of 600,000 egg capacity 278 

178. Express shipment of chicks 279 

179. Double-deck mammoth incubators 281 

180. A farm brood 284 

181. Simple devices for sitting hens 285 

182. Broods on a grassy range 286 

183. Section through outdoor incubator 287 

184. Plan of coop for sitting hens 288 

185. Front elevation of coop for sitting hens 289 

186. Rear perspective of coop 290 

187. Dusting sitting hens 292 

188. Makeshift coop 293 

189. Rectangular brood coop 294 

190. V-shaped brood coop and run 294 

191. Hot-water brooding system 296 

192. Brooder house with outdoor runs 297 

193. Brooder stoves are great labor savers 299 

194. Colony brooders on Government station 300 

195. Homemade fireless brooder 301 

196. 50-chick size lamp brooding hover 302 

197. Outdoor colony brooder 303 

198. Brooder — complete outfit 304 

199. Sectional view coal-burning brooder stove 305 

200. Chicks sleeping around stove 306 

201. Combination brooder and colony house 307 

202. Filling coal hopper of a brooder stove 308 



ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 

Fig. Page 

203. Sectional view of brooder stove 309 

204. Summer chicks require plenty of shade 313 

205. Feeding frame for chicks 314 

206. Cleaning around brooder stove 315 

207. Lamp hovers are easily moved 316 

208. Portable yard for young chicks 317 

209. Sectional view of brooder stove 318 

210. Colony house with gasoline brooder 319 

211. Orchard an ideal location for growing chicks 320 

212. Privacy for the hen and brood ' 322 

213. Portable hover in simply constructed coop 326 

214. Separating the mother hens 327 

215. Covered runaway 329 

216. A husky brood 332 

217. Colony house from piano cases 334 

218. Inexpensive colony growing coop 336 

219. Secluded spot for the brood 337 

220. Hinged front for colony house 337 

221. Indoor coop for discouraging broodiness 340 

222. Outdoor coop for broody hens 341 

223. Contest house at Storrs, Connecticut 343 

224. A-shaped colony house 345 

225. Wire-covered shed for housing cockerels 348 

226. Homemade fattening crate 349 

227. Pouring feed in fattening crates 351 

228. Plans for 2-compartment fattening crate 352 

229. Killing and dressing broilers 353 

230. Correct way to grasp fowl for sticking 354 

231. Anatomy of skull showing position of veins 355 

232. Heads of fowls with jaws removed 356 

233. Well-finished market fowl 359 

234. Capons dressed for market 360 

235. Side view of capons dressed for market 361 

236. Caponizing instruments 363 

237. Layout for caponizing 365 

238. Diagram showing where incision should be made 366 

239. Inserting the spreaders 367 

240. Using the probe 368 

241. Pushing the intestines aside 368 

242. Grasping the gland 369 

243. Operation finished 369 

244. Class in killing and dressing 370 

245. Permanent quarters for pullets 373 

246. Three thousand pullets on range 375 

247. Busy moment for the trap nest 376 

248. Brood coop with slatted run 377 

249. Pullets on a California ranch 379 

250. Packing house equipment 381 

251. Breeders handled in large units 383 

252. Plans for a catching coop 384 

253. Brood coop made from rough lumber 386 

254. Practical method for catching fowls 388 

255. Diagram digestive apparatus of a fowl 392 



xviii ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

256. Outer shell membrane of fresh egg 393 

257. Inner shell membrane of fresh egg -. . 394 

258. Sectional view of egg 396 

259. Yellow yolk of fresh egg 397 

260. White yolk of fresh egg 398 

261. Class in candling and grading eggs 401 

262. Changes affecting the appearance of eggs 403 

263. Eggs during period of incubation 405 

264. Fertile and infertile eggs 407 

265. Vegetable cellar for storing eggs 408 

266. Gravity test for telling age of eggs 409 

267. Freight car for shipping live poultry 411 

268. A full house 414 

269. Refrigerator car loaded with poultry 415 

270. Candling eggs at farmer's gate 419 

271. Stolen nest in tree 420 

272. Other stolen nests 422 

2 73- Typical forms of egg breakage 424 

274. Grading and packing eggs 427 

275. Well-equipped feeding plant 428 

276. Interior of a feeding plant 430 

277. Metal chilling racks • 432 

278. Bench killing and picking 434 

279. California type of laying house . . 437 

280. Elevated laying houses 439 

281. Preparing water glass 440 

282. Receptacles for preserving eggs 441 

283. Examining eggs by means of candler 442 

284. Arrangement of houses and runs 443 

285. Indiana poultry house 446 

286. Metal chilling racks for hanging poultry ' 448 

287. Small fattening station 450 

288. Removing small feathers from poultry 453 

289. String killing and picking 454 

290. Holding birds on lap while picking 455 

291. Glossary chart of the sections of a fowl 458 

292. Catching coop for fowls 459 

293. Well-arranged poultry exhibit 462 

294. Prize-winning Black Langshan 465 

295. Skeleton of a fowl 468 

296. Commercial feeding station 469 

297. Open-front poultry house 472 

298. Pen of Pekin ducks 474 

299. Good type of feeder '. 476 

300. Indifferent type of feeder 477 

301. Poor feeder 479 

302. Ducks require low fences 481 

303. Household scales for weighing poultry 484 

304. Brooder house with covered front platform , 487 

305. Promising looking flock of Leghorn pullets 489 

306. Ducks raised near water 492 

307. Feed hopper on raised platform 496 

308. Colony houses grouped in winter 498 



ILLUSTRATIONS xix 

Fig. p AGE 

309. Feeding with tramcars 500 

310. Ideal location for ducks and geese 503 

311. Artificial duck pond 505 

312. Well-proportioned poultry house 506 

313. White Pekin ducklings 507 

314. Painting the perches with crude oil 510 

315. Dusting a fowl with insect powder 511 

316. Spraying the roosting compartments 513 

317. Outfit for whitewashing 515 

318. Interior of pigeon house 517 

319. Pekin ducks 520 

320. White Muscovy ducks 521 

321. Indian Runner ducks 522 

322. Aylesbury ducks 524 

323. Rouen ducks 525 

324. Ducks are heavy drinkers 526 

325. Toulouse geese 529 

326. Emden geese 530 

327. White China geese 531 

328. Muscovy ducks are sometimes regarded as geese 536 

329. Bronze turkeys 540 

330. White Holland turkeys 542 

331. Shelters for protection against elements 545 

332. Combination chicken and squab farm 549 

333- Typical pigeon house and fly 551 

334. Open-front poultry house in summer 555 

335. Same house in winter 557 

336. Ideal range for growing stock 559 

337. Homer pigeon 563 

338. Carneaux pigeon 565 

339. White runt, female pigeon 566 

340. Runt cross pigeon 567 

341 . Runt cross pigeon 568 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

CHAPTER I 
AMERICAN POULTRY INDUSTRY 

The term poultry, as it is commonly understood, applies col- 
lectively to those species of domestic birds which are kept for 
the purpose of furnishing eggs and meat for human consump- 
tion. Game birds are used on the table, but so long as they re- 
main in a wild state they cannot be classed as poultry. On the 
other hand, we are disposed to consider certain species of birds 
as poultry, such as pigeons which are bred for ornament or as 
carriers, whereas they do not rightfully belong under this head. 
Peafowls are considered as poultry, and while formerly they were 
bred for the table, they are now raised almost exclusively for orna- 
ment. Swans are in pretty much the same position as peafowls. 

Main Divisions. — Technically there are three main divisions 
of poultry: (i) Gallinacea, or comb bearers, which include 
chickens, turkeys, guinea fowls, pheasants and quail. All re- 
semble each other in general structure and habits, and all are 
distinguished from other birds in that the flesh on the breast 
and wings is lighter in color than on the rest of the body. (2) 
Natatores, or swimmers, include ducks, geese and swans, and 
are characterized by their web feet and long, thick bills. (3) 
Columbidae, or doves, is the other order; pigeons are its only 
representatives in the poultry world. 

Chickens comprise the bulk of the poultry industry, especially 
in this country, and their relation to the animal kingdom is as 
follows: They belong to the series, Metazoa, because they con- 
sist of animals with cellular tissues and true eggs. They are of 
the branch, Vertebrata, inasmuch as they are animals having an 
internal skeleton and backbone. They are in the division known 
1 1 



AMERICAN POULTRY INDUSTRY 



as Craniota, because they have a skull, heart and brain. They 
are classed as Aves, because they are true birds, feathered, and 
have four limbs, one pair for progression on land and one pair 
for flight; no teeth. They are sub-divided into the order, 
Rasores, because they are terrestrial in their habits, having 
stout legs suitable for scratching, and strong arched beaks suit- 
able for seed eating. Gallus is a true representative of this 
order, and is the common ancestor of all our domestic fowls; 
it was a jungle fowl native to southwestern Asia and Oceania. 

To-day there are over a hundred different varieties of chickens. 
By variety we mean species of certain well defined character- 
istics, which are officially recognized, as by the American Stan- 
dard of Perfection. 

Scope of Poultry Industry. — The importance of the poultry 
industry, and the relative importance of chickens to the industry, 
may be gathered from the United States census report for 1910, 
as shown in Table I. 

Table I. —Species of Poultry in United States According to 1910 

Census 





Farms Reporting 


Number of 
Poultry 


Estimated 
Value 




Number 


Per Cent 
of Farms 


Total Poultry 


5,585,012 


88.1 


295,876,176 


$153,394,142 


Chickens 

Turkeys 

Ducks 

Geese 

Guinea fowls 

Pigeons 

All others 


5,577,218 
852,679 

503,673 
661,189 
339,922 

99,409 
2,005 


88.0 

134 

7-9 

10.4 

5-4 
1.6 
.001 


280,340,643 
3,688,688 

2,904,359 
4,431,623 

1,765,033 

2,730,996 

14,834 


$140,192,912 

6,605,640 

1,566,176 

3,192,861 

613,282 

162,372 

460,899 



Unfortunately, Table I fails to take into account the numbers 
of poultry under three months of age, or those which are raised 
and kept in backyards of towns and villages all over the country. 
If these were added they would constitute a big increase over the 



EQUALS VALUE OF WHEAT 



figures in the census report, and also raise the ratio of chickens 
to other species. 

Regarding the magnitude of the industry in still another way, 
in 191 1 the Secretary of Agriculture placed the national income 
from poultry products at $750,000,000 for the year. This figure 
equaled the combined value of all the gold, silver, iron and coal 
mined that year, and exceeded the value of the wheat crop for 
the same period. To-day, the income from poultry products 
is estimated at one billion dollars annually, or one-twelfth the 
value of all agricultural products, or one-fiftieth of our total 
wealth on all manufactures and industries of every description. 
Manifestly, the poultry 
industry occupies a very 
important part in our de- 
velopment, a very much 
more important part 
than most of us have any 
idea. 

Eggs Leading Prod- 
uct. — According to the 
1 910 census the income 
from poultry products 
for the average farm was 
$104.98, or about two 
dollars per bird. Eggs 

are the leading poultry product, and constitute about sixty-five 
per cent of the total value of the poultry as a whole. That most 
of these eggs are hens' eggs goes without saying. True, the eggs 
from ducks and guinea fowls find their way into the trade chan- 
nels, but in such small numbers as to be a negligible factor. 
Turkey eggs and goose eggs are used almost exclusively for hatch- 
ing purposes. 

Demand Greater Than Supply. — The output of eggs is in- 
creasing each year, yet there are no gluts for the reason that the 
demand is always greater than the supply. According to the 
Year Book of the Department of Agriculture for 1910 the aver- 




nsin Experiment Station) 



Fig. 3. — A hen with a brood of sturdy chicks 
is one of the farmer's best assets. 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



age price paid to farmers in 1899 was 11.5 cents a dozen. In 
1909 the average price was 19.7 cents per dozen, an increase of 
almost a hundred per cent in ten years. In 191 7 the average 
price was about 25 cents a dozen. 

Table II shows a comparison of the prices paid for poultry and 
eggs in New York City for a number of years. The prices are 
those paid by wholesalers, all grades considered, except those of 
the strictly fancy marks from nearby points, which are in small 
volume, and handled mostly by express shipments. 

Table II. — Wholesale Prices of Eggs and Poultry in New York City 





Prices Paid in Cents 


Year 












Live Poultry 


Dressed Poultry 




Eggs Per Dozen 


Per Pound 


Per Pound 


1896 


14.O 


9.0 


IO. O 


1897 


14-5 


8-5 


9.0 


1898 


15-5 


8.8 


9.1 


1899 


17.0 


9.8 


II.O 


19OO 


16.0 


9-3 


10.0 


19OI 


18.0 


9-5 


II.O 


1902 


20.0 


n-5 


14-5 


1903 


18.5 


12.5 


15-5 


1904 


20.0 


12.5 


15.0 


1905 


20.0 


13.0 


16.0 


1906 


19.0 


12.8 


15.0 


1907 


18.5 


13.8 


15-5 


1908 


19.0 


13-5 


15.8 


1909 


23-5 


16.0 


18.3 


1910 


23.0 


17.0 


19.8 


I9II 


19-3 


.15.0 


17.8 


1912 


22.8 


15-5 


18.3 



For 191 7 the average price on eggs was about 30 cents, for live 
poultry 22 cents, and for dressed poultry 26 cents. 

Export Trade. — Aside from the increase in our home consump- 
tion of poultry products, our export trade is steadily growing. 
In 1912 we imported eggs to the extent of $147,173. For the same 
period we exported eggs to the extent of $3,400,000. Table III 
shows how these exports have grown, and to which continental 
divisions they were sent: 



DEMAND INCREASING STEADILY 
Table III. — Exports of Eggs from U. S. 



Year 


1908 


19C9 


1910 


1911 


1912 


Europe 

North America 

South America 

Asia 

Oceania 


$44,995 

1,490,279 

2,692 

597 

i,45i 


$2,265 

1,195,446 

1,342 

135 

334 


$574 

1,256,998 

1,921 

337 
666 


$639 
1,782,141 

3,218 

43 
978 


$15,613 

3,375,413 

3,135 

60 

1,731 



The figures in Table III apply to eggs in the shell. There were 
additional exports, amounting to about thirty thousand dollars 
a year, for canned eggs, yolks, and so on. 

Distribution of Poultry. — Geographically the poultry produc- 
tion of this country may be divided into three principal sections: 
(1) the northeastern states, including New England and the 
Middle Atlantic States, (2) the states bordering on the Pacific 
coast, and (3) the states lying in the Mississippi Valley. Each 
principal section is more or less distinctive for its kind of products. 
In the northeastern territory the poultry industry is highly spe- 
cialized. A great many large farms devoted to nothing but fowls 
are found there, and their outputs are consumed in nearby mar- 
kets in the large cities. In the Vineland, New Jersey, tract there 
are upwards of a quarter of a million White Leghorn hens, bred 
for high egg production. 

The Pacific territory is pretty much the same as the north- 
eastern section, only on a smaller scale. Conditions are pretty 
much identical, both as to methods of production and marketing. 
The Petaluma district corresponds to the Vineland tract, and it 
is the largest single poultry producing section in the world. 
See Fig. I. It has close to a million White Leghorn hens. 

Mississippi Valley Poultry. — Things are very different in the 
Mississippi Valley, which comprises the states of Minnesota, Wis- 
consin, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Nebraska, Iowa, Kan- 
sas, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and 
Texas. In this vast territory the great bulk of our poultry is 
produced, yet for all, there are very few farms which might be 



VALUE OF POULTRY 9 

termed strictly poultry farms, or where the poultry reared is con- 
sidered anything more than a by-product. The farms are devoted 
to other forms of livestock or to other agricultural pursuits, chiefly 
grain, and what chickens are kept represent small flocks, mostly 
of indiscriminate origin. 



Table IV. — Value op Poultry in Ten Leading States, 

Census of 19 10 



According to 



Rank 


State 


Total Value 


I 


Iowa 


$12,270,000 


2 


Missouri 


11,871,000 


3 


Illinois 


11,697,000 


4 


Ohio 


9,533,000 


5 


New York 


7,879,000 


6 


Indiana 


7,762,000 


7 


Pennsylvania 


7,674,000 


8 


Kansas 


7,377,000 


9 


Michigan 


5,611,000 


10 


Texas 


4,807,000 



Collectively these flocks produce over fifty per cent of the 
total valuation of our poultry industry, the greater part of 
which is marketed elsewhere. The quality of the products pro- 
duced in the Mississippi Valley is inferior to the grades pro- 
duced in the other sections. This is especially true of eggs, and 
is due to the fact that the average farmer does not give his 
hens the correct care, neither does he take sufficient pains in 
marketing the eggs promptly. The bulk of the poultry and eggs 
produced in this section is sold to local buyers, thence to the city 
packing houses and wholesalers. 




ill 



10 



CHAPTER II 
ANALYZING THE DIFFERENT BREEDS 

Best Breed. — No inquiry comes to hand more frequently than: 
"Which is the best breed of fowls?" "Which variety of chickens 
is the most profitable?" 

These and similar questions are entirely pertinent ones, of 
course, yet none are so difficult to answer, except at great length, 
accompanied by much explanatory matter. I have always held 
that there is no one BEST breed of chickens. And I am still of 
the same opinion. 

To be sure, there are best breeds for a particular purpose, and 
there may be superior breeds for a given locality, also, there are 
varieties better suited to a special taste for ornamental fowls; 
but, these qualifications make the subject more or less specific, 
which is the only way that it can be discussed intelligently. Let 
us consider it from this impartial standpoint. 

Standard Varieties. — It may surprise the layman to learn that 
there are upward of no standard and a large number of non- 
standard varieties of chickens. See Table V. By non-standard 
breeds is meant those that are well established, but not as yet 
admitted to the American Standard of Perfection, which is the 
authority on poultry in this country, just as the American Kennel 
Club is the authority on dogs. The American Standard of Per- 
fection is a very illuminating work, by the way, gotten up by the 
American Poultry Association, and should find a place on every 
poultryman's bookshelf. No fancier should attempt to raise 
fowls for exhibition purposes without this authority, and even 
for commercial ends it will be found decidedly helpful. 

11 



12 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Table V.— Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties of Poultry 

According to American Standard of Perfection for 1910 

Variety 



Class 



American 



Asiatic 



Mediterranean . 



Breed 



Plymouth Rock 



Wyandotte . 



Barred 

White 

Buff 

Silver Pencilled 

Partridge 

Columbian 

Silver 

Golden 

White 

Buff 

Black 

Partridge 

Silver Pencilled 

Columbian 

T / Black 

J ava \ Mottled 

Dominique Rose Comb 

Rhode Island Red [ f^^om™ 
Buckeye Pea Comb 

Brahma 



Light 
Dark 

Buff 
~ , . I Partridge 

Cochin White 



White 
Black 



. / Black 

t Langshan j white 



Leghorn . 



Minorca. 



Spanish .... 
Andalusians . 
Ancona .... 



Single Comb Brown 
Rose Comb Brown 
Single Comb White 
Rose Comb White 
Single Comb Buff 
Rose Comb Buff 
Single Comb Black 
Silver 
Single Comb Red Pyle 

Single Comb Black 
Rose Comb Black 
Single Comb White 
Single Comb Buff 

White-faced Black 

Blue 

Mottled 



GREAT DIVISIONS OF CHICKENS 



13 



Table V. — Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties of Poultry- 

(Continued) 



Class 



English 



Breed 
Dorkings. 



Polish . 



Variety 
White 
Silver Gray 
Colored 



Red Caps Rose Comb 

f Single Comb Buff 

Orpingtons I Single Comb Black 

[ Single Comb White 



White-crested Black 
Bearded Golden 
Bearded Silver 
Bearded White 
Buff Laced 
Non-bearded Golden 
Non-bearded Silver 
Non-bearded White 



Polish . 



Hamburg Hamburg 



Golden Spangled 
Silver Spangled 
Golden Pencilled 
Silver Pencilled 
White 
Black 



French 



f Houdan Mottled 

Crevecoeurs Black 

La Fleche Black 



Game and Game Bantam 



Game. 



Game Bantam . 



Black-breasted Red 

Brown Red 

Golden Duckwing 

Silver Duckwing 

Birchen 

Red Pyle 

White 

Black 

Black-breasted Red 

Brown Red 

Golden Duckwing 

Silver Duckwing 

Birchen 

Red Pyle 

White 

Black 



14 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Table V. — Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties of Poultry- 

(Continued) 

Class Breed Variety 

Dark 

Cornish -J White 

White-laced Red 



Oriental . 



Sumatra Black 

Malay Black-breasted Red 

Malay Bantam . . Black-breasted Red 



Ornamental Bantam . 



o i • i , ( Golden 

Sebnght { Silver 



Rose Comb 
Booted .... 



White 
Black 

White 



Buff 

r u- I Partridge 

Cochin . . j wh . te 

{ Black 

Black Tailed 

Japanese \ White 

Black 



Polish 



Bearded White 
Buff Laced 
Non-bearded 



Miscellaneous. 



Silkies White 

Sultans White 

Frizzles Any Color 



Turkey Turkey . 



Bronze 

Narragansett 

White 

Biack 

Buff 

Slate 

Bourbon 



CLASSES OF POULTRY 



15 



Table V. — Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties of Poultry — 

(Continued) 
Class Breed Variety 

Pekin White 

Aylesbury White 

Rouen Colored 

Cayuga Black 

Lal1 I White 



Duck . 



Black 
. . White 
Muscovy.... { ™°™ d 



East India . 
Crested . . . 



Indian Runner. 



Fawn and White 
White 



Swedish Blue 

Toulouse Gray 

Embden White 

African Gray 

G ° OSe ] Chinese { $£? 

Wild or Canadian . . .Gray 
Egyptian Colored 

The standard varieties are generally divided into the following 
classes: 

i. American Class: Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode 
Island Reds, Javas, Dominiques, Buckeyes. 

2. Asiatic Class: Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans. 

3. Mediterranean Class: Leghorns, Minorcas, Spanish, An- 
dalusians, Campines and Anconas. 

4. English Class: Dorkings, Orpingtons and Redcaps. 

5. Polish Class: Polish fowls of which there are eight varieties. 

6. Dutch Class: Hamburgs, of which there are six varieties. 

7. French Class: Houdans, Crevecoeurs and La Fleche. 

8. Games and Game Bantams: Eight varieties of games, and 
the same number and kind of game bantams. 



16 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

9. Oriental Class: Cornish, Sumatras, Malays and' Malay 
Bantams. 

10. Ornamental Bantam Class: Sebrights, Rose-Comb, Booted, 
Brahmas, Cochins, Japanese and Polish. 

11. Miscellaneous: Silkies, Sultans and Frizzles. 

For practical purposes the above eleven classes are grouped 
into four general classes, about as follows: 

1. Egg breeds, commonly called the non-sitting breeds. 

2. Meat or table breeds. 

3. General purpose breeds, sometimes spoken of as dual-pur- 
pose fowls. 

4. Ornamental breeds, which, as the term implies, includes such 
ornamental varieties as the Polish, Games, and Bantams, 
and are raised almost exclusively by fanciers for exhibition 
purposes. 

General Discussion. — It will appear obvious that the question 
of selecting a particular variety of poultry is one having consider- 
able scope and many sides. It is manifestly impossible to take 
care of the subject in a single chapter. Therefore, in this chapter 
we will devote our attention to a general discussion of the problem. 

No Iron-Clad Rules. — The writer has always worked on the 
assumption, if such it be, that there are no iron-clad rules for 
poultry keeping. It has been said that a man must be half hen 
with feathers growing on his back to make a success with chickens. 
We interpret this to mean that a man (or woman, we use the 
masculine form merely to simplify expression) must be fond of the 
work, and understand the nature of his charge, otherwise he can 
not attain that insight and competence, in a sense comradeship, 
which is the foundation of all success in handling animals. In 
other words, he must always have the interests of his birds at 
heart. Such a man can make a success of any breed of poultry. 

Hens are considered downright stupid by some. However true 
this may be, there is considerable human nature in a chicken, 
more character, perhaps, than one would suppose. Failure to 
appreciate this is probably one of the reasons why many breeders 
are unsuccessful. There are temperaments in chickens, just as 
there are temperaments in the human kind. The point is to seek 



BREED FOR DEFINITE END 



17 



the fowl having some basis for mutual exchange — a similarity or 
congeniality between the keeper and his flock. For this reason 
I do not care to say offhand that a certain breed is best. I prefer 
to leave this selection to the individual. The wisdom of this stand 
will become apparent in the succeeding paragraphs. 

Some prospective poultrymen contemplate a start in the busi- 
ness with a fixed interest or fondness for a particular variety 
firmly established in their minds. Others enter the field with a 




Fig. 6. — Light Brahmas. 

definite end, but no particular interest in any one breed. Still 
others engage in the work without any special interest in any 
breed or any particular phase of the work, simply a desire to raise 
chickens. There is yet another class of prospective poultrymen 
who, being possessed of certain real estate, from which it is im- 
practicable to move, we will say, should select breeds that are 
best adapted to their particular localities. 

Have a Definite Aim. — At first glance you may conclude that 



18 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



this analysis is hair-splitting. Not so. It is common sense .in the 
extreme. One of the fundamentals of good business is to apply 
one's talents to the best advantage, where they are the most con- 
genial, the most productive, and where they can be made to 
specialize. Aimlessness is almost fatal to success in any line of 
endeavor. It is like the proverbial rolling stone. Fix your mind 
on a specific end, and then select the conditions best suited to 
accomplish that end. 




Wfy"//U 
mar ^'"^ /tli 



Fig. 7. — White Wyandottes. 



The person who starts out with a fondness for a particular 
breed of chickens should capitalize on that fondness if it is at all 
feasible. For example, we will say that a person is partial to 
Light Brahmas. See Fig. 6. That person should make his spe- 
cialty meat, and not eggs. If, on the other hand, he favors Silver 
Campines to the exclusion of all other breeds, he should make his 
specialty eggs, and not meat. The Light Brahma is one of the 



WYANDOTTES ARE GOOD BROILERS 



19 



best meat breeds, either for soft roasters or capons; the Silver 
Campine is essentially an egg producer, and is not desirable for 
table poultry. When I say "not desirable for table poultry" I 
mean that it is not in popular demand, and not particularly pro- 
fitable as such. The Campine is small, inclined to be dry and 
stringy, and the color of its carcass does not meet with market 
requirements. They find a sale, of course, but the prices received 
are below those gotten for the Brahmas. 




Fig. 8. — White Plymouth Rocks. 



Breeds for Particular Purposes. — The person who starts out 
with a particular specialty firmly fixed in his mind should make 
everything subordinate to this end. If he has his mind made up 
on a broiler plant, well and good, he will do well to choose the 
Wyandotte, all other things being equal. See Fig. 7. He might 
also select the Plymouth Rock or the Rhode Island Red, or nu- 
merous others, but he would be heading wrong to pick out, let 



20 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Table VI. — Weights of Different Breeds as Required by the 
American Standard of Perfection of 19 10 



Class 



American class: 

Plymouth Rocks 

Wyandottes 

Javas 

Dominiques 

Rhode Island Reds. . . . 

Buckeyes 

Asiatic class: 

Brahmas 

Cochins 

Langshans 

Mediterranean class: 

Minorcas 

Spanish 

Blue Andalusians 

English class: 

Dorkings 

Redcaps , 

Orpingtons 

French class: 

Houdans 

Crevecceurs 

La Fleche 

Oriental class: 

Cornish 

Malays 

Malay Bantams 

Game Bantam class: 

Game Bantams 

Ornamental Bantam class 

Sebrights 

Rose-Comb 

Booted 

Brahma 

Cochin 

Japanese 

Polish 



Cocks 



Pounds 

9A 

%A 

9 l A 

7 

8}4 

9 

12 
11 

9A 

9 

8 
6 



7K 
10 



7A 

8 

8K 



Ounces 
26 



26 
26 
26 
30 
30 
26 
26 



Hens 



Pounds 

7A 
ey 2 

7A 
5 

6 

9A 
9A 



7A 
6A 

5 

6 
6 



t>A 

7 
7A 

7 
7 

Ounces 
24 



22 
22 
22 
26 
26 
22 
22 



Cockerels 



Pounds 



7A 

8 
6 

7A 



10 

9 

8 

7A 

(>A 

5 

6A 
6 

%A 
6A 

7 



Ounces 
24 



22 
22 
22 
26 
26 
22 
22 



Pullets 



Pounds 
6 

(>y 2 

4 
5 
5 



7 

6A 
5A 

4 

5 

5 
7 

sA 

6 
6 A 

6 

5 

Ounces 
22 



20 
20 
20 

24 

24 
20 
20 



us say, the Hamburg or the Polish. On the contrary, if this fellow- 
wanted to establish a specialty in fancy eggs for a select trade, 
and the trade called for white eggs, he would do well to raise 
Leghorns, and not Cornish or Red Pyle Games. If the market 



COLD CLIMATE BREEDS 



21 



requirements demanded brown shelled eggs, he must forget about 
Leghorns and turn to one of the American breeds or English 
breeds. New York, for instance, is very partial to white eggs — 
they command premium prices over brown eggs; whereas Boston 
favors brown eggs, as do other New England cities. 

We now come to the fellow who has few if any convictions as 




Fig. 9. — White-Laced Red Cornish Fowls. 



to breeds or purposes. He will be influenced by his circumstances, 
of course, the amount of available capital, the amount of labor he 
intends putting into the project, and the locality in which he 
hopes to make a start. This prospective poultryman is pretty 
much in the same class with the fellow who is possessed of a loca- 
tion, and must make his specialty suit that property. 

In extremely cold climates where the winters are long and 



22 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

severe, it is sometimes best to adopt one of the heavier breeds, 
such as the Plymouth Rocks, for these are hardy birds. See Fig. 
8. If the location is adjacent to water, ducks should be considered. 
If there is an abundance of pasture land, geese would be profitable. 
Where there is wide range in a wood lot, turkeys and guineas do 
well. If the chickens are to be kept in a backyard, in restricted 
quarters, it is advisable to select a docile breed rather than a 
nervous, excitable variety. If the flock is to be restrained within 
a low fence, the meat or general purpose breeds are best. They 
can be confined within a three or four foot fence, whereas the 
Mediterranean breeds are high flyers and generally require a 
seven-foot yard. 

The popularity of the breed is another factor worthy of one's 
consideration. Whimsical and illogical as this may sound, it is 
nevertheless an important item toward the success of a poultry 
venture. 



CHAPTER III 
EGG BREEDS 

Definition. — The term Egg Breeds is used to designate those 
varieties whose greatest usefulness lies in the production of eggs. 
Most of these fowls comprise the Mediterranean class. They are 
mostly small or medium-size birds, of a nervous, active tempera- 
ment, take flight readily when frightened, excellent foragers, gen- 
erally poor sitters, and not very dependable mothers. For best 
results their eggs must be hatched in incubators, and the chicks 
raised artificially. They mature quickly, and feather at an early 
age, the chicks often developing wing feathers when but a few 
days old. The meat of the egg breeds does not rank very high 
for table purposes, except when the fowls are young. They make 
fair broilers up to twelve weeks of age. Surplus cockerels are 
used to this end, though it would hardly pay the poultryman who 
specializes in broilers to think of adopting these breeds. He would 
do better to select one of the meat or general purpose breeds. 

Broad Generalities. — In discussing a subject of this kind it 
must be borne in mind that these descriptions are based upon 
broad generalities — the popularly accepted rules. There are ex- 
ceptions, of course, since many natural instincts have been out- 
bred in certain strains of fowls by long periods of intense domes- 
tication. Chickens are made docile by training, just as wild 
animals are made to live peaceably in a domestic state. I have 
seen Leghorns that were a lot more approachable than Plymouth 
Rocks, though the rule is not the case. I mention this here that 
the reader will not be misguided into the belief- that all egg breeds 
of fowls are wild, or even semi-wild, uncontrollable birds, because 
they are not. 

Vigor of Mediterranean Varieties. — Until the past decade, 
most of the Mediterranean varieties were thought to be more or 

23 



24 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



less delicate. This is accounted for by several reasons. Nearly 
all of the eggs breeds have large combs and pendulous wattles, 
hence they are sensitive to cold. It has been found, however, that 
if the poultry houses are kept dry by adequate ventilation, and 
the fowls are given suitable roosting quarters, there is little trouble 
from frost-bite, even in climates where the temperature goes below 
freezing for months at a time. The fact that the young chicks 





; , fplilyi > 

* if 









■^§c 



Fig. 10. — Single Comb White Leghorn. 



feather very quickly, which is a great drain on their systems, was 
accepted as another reason for making them delicate for a time. 
Being imported from countries that are warm and sunny the 
greater part of the year, it was to be expected that these Mediter- 
ranean breeds should be influenced by our northern winters at 
first. Now, however, they have been bred here so long that they 
are in the main thoroughly acclimated, and little fear need be 
entertained as to their hardihood. 



MOST COMMON EGG BREEDS 



25 



The Leghorn is probably the best example of the non-sitting 
class. See Fig. 10. It is certainly the most popular and the most 
widely bred of any European fowl. Other egg breeds include the 
Minorcas, Anconas, Andalusians, Campines and Spanish, all 
Mediterranean breeds. To these should be added the Hamburg, 
Houdan, the Redcap and possibly some others. They all lay 
white-shelled eggs. 




Fig. II. — Single Comb Brown Leghorn. 



The most common varieties of Leghorns are White, Brown, 
Buff, Black and Silver, and most of these color varieties are again 
sub-divided into Single and Rose-Comb species. The White and 
Brown Leghorns are the most widely bred, and they were the 
first varieties known. There seems to be excellent ground for the 
belief that they were first introduced into America from Italy. 
There is a story to the effect that in 1834 a sailing vessel from 



26 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Leghorn, Italy, brought a small cargo of fowls to this country, 
which were at once named Leghorns. They were found, to be 
prolific layers, which at once gave rise to their popularity. 

Improvement. — Since their first importation the Leghorns have 
been greatly improved, needless to say, and American breeders 
are also responsible for creating most of the sub-varieties of the 
breed. I am of the opinion that the Browns run a trifle smaller 
than the Whites, and that they lay a smaller egg. See Fig. II. 
The Browns are probably hardier, but to offset this advantage, 
they are harder to breed true to color, especially in large flocks, 
and they do not make so good a carcass as the Whites when 
dressed. 

The White Leghorn is acknowledged to be the premier in lay- 
ing, so much so that it has come to be recognized as the standard 
by which the prolificness of other breeds are judged. It may be 
said to represent in the poultry world what the Jersey cow does 
in the dairy — small in size, but great in production. Some of the 
most successful poultry plants in the country use the White 
Leghorn exclusively, especially those catering to a fancy egg trade. 

The Buff Leghorn is a beautiful variety, and has many ad- 
mirers. See Fig. 12. It has the same general characteristics as 
its White cousin, only its plumage is a rich golden buff color. 
The Black Leghorn is another striking example of this breed, and 
is a favorite among those who are partial to dark-colored birds. 
This variety is sometimes mistaken for the Black Minorca, though 
the latter is larger in size, has a longer body, larger comb, and 
dark slate or nearly black shanks and toes. The Black Leghorn 
is a glossy black throughout its plumage; comb, face and wattles 
are bright red; the ear lobes white, and the shanks yellow or 
yellowish black. 

Silver Leghorns, sometimes called Silver Duckwing Leghorns, 
are not so widely bred in this country, though they are frequently 
seen in the show rooms. In point of beauty they are considered 
very interesting, but they are likewise difficult to breed true to 
color in large flocks. In other ways they are considered as profit- 
able as the other varieties. 



RIGHT BREED IN RIGHT PLACE 



27 



The only distinguishing difference between the single-comb and 
rose-comb varieties is in the comb. The former has a blade, while 
the latter has a spike. Rose-comb varieties are preferred by some 
because there is less danger from frost-bite. 

There is no standard weight given for Leghorns, though the 
average may be said to be 3^2 pounds for hens, and 4^ pounds 
for cocks. Pullets and cockerels are a trifle under these weights. 
Some strains run heavier, which is obtained by introducing 




Fig. 12. — Rose-Comb Buff Leghorn. 






Minorca blood. It is thought that some of the English breeders 
have crossed a little Wyandotte blood, for their Leghorns are of 
a much different type. 

Correct Circumstances. — The Leghorn, while it is a breed of 
great merit, should not be confused as the right breed for every 
man and every place. Put the Leghorn in its proper environment 
and there is no fowl that will surpass it. On the contrary, if sub- 
jected to conditions that are not suitable for it, it will be an end- 
less source of trouble and disappointment. Leghorns are ambi- 



28 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



tious fowls, tireless foragers. If there is any scratching in sight, 
whether it be a garbage heap, truck garden, cold-frame, manure 
pile, or rose-bed, the Leghorn will make strenuous efforts to get 
into it. Therefore, the person who would keep a garden, for 
flowers or vegetables, had better see to it that his hen yard is 
securely inclosed with wire netting if he expects to raise Leghorns. 
If the runs are large enough, Leghorns can be confined within 




Fig. 13. — Lakenvelders. 



a seven-foot fence, as a rule. Once they develop the habit of 
"yard-breaking," however, they will clear this with ease, for they 
make a practice of half-flying and half-climbing up the netting. 
Nervousness. — As previously mentioned, the Leghorn is a 
nervous bird. Whenever danger approaches, or anything that 
they imagine is dangerous or unusual, their first impulse is to 
fly out of the way. They abominate the feeling of being cornered. 



MINORCAS 29 

In a large yard, especially if it is square, this condition is not so 
likely to occur. And if a flock is not made to resort to its wings, 
in time it seems to forget their real power, in which event they 
are confined with less trouble. It is a mistake to place rails at 
the top of a fence, or anything that appears as a perch. These 
tempt the birds to fly to them. 

Small Size. — One argument that is used in favor of the Leghorn 
is its small size, which will enable one to keep a large number in 
a small space, such as a backyard or town lot. It is true that Leg- 
horns require smaller house room than some other breeds, which 
is an important factor on the commercial plant, but at the same 
time they should have greater outdoor freedom. From my ex- 
perience, I would prefer one of the American breeds in limited 
areas. As a rule they are more docile and will stand close confine- 
ment with better results. 

The eggs from the Leghorn run high in fertility, which has 
made this breed a favorite in the day-old-chick trade. It is not 
unusual for breeders to secure 98 per cent fertility. An average 
of 90 per cent would be considered equal to 65 per cent in the 
heavier varieties. The pullets often begin laying when 4^ months 
old, though 5^ months should be reckoned as the average. The 
cockerels commence to crow at two months, or younger, and are 
very precocious. 

Leghorns, and in fact, other egg breeds, are comparatively 
small eaters, and the cost of raising them to maturity is about 
one-half that of the meat breeds. Under proper conditions a 
flock of Leghorns that has been bred for heavy egg production 
should average between 130 and 180 eggs a year. Many indi- 
viduals have scored over 250 eggs in a single year, and even 300 
eggs. 

General Characteristics. — The Minorcas belong to the Medi- 
terranean class, and are often rated next to the Leghorn in laying 
qualities. They are bred in two colors, white and black. The 
Whites have a single comb, whereas the Blacks are bred with a 
single comb, also rose comb, which is now accepted as a standard 
variety. The single comb Black is the most widely bred of this 
family, a truly beautiful and useful fowl. See Fig. 14. 



30 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Origin of Name. — Why these fowls are called Minorcas is one 
of the mysteries so common to the history of poultry. The breed 
was formerly called the Red-Faced Black Spanish, or Portugal 
fowl. Some persons got the idea that they originally came from 
the island of Minorca, hence the name. 

Weight. — Minorcas are heavier than Leghorns, and are there- 
fore more to be recommended as table fowls. The standard 




Fig. 14. — Single Comb Black Minorca. 



weight of the Single Comb Black variety is 9 pounds for cocks, 
7^ pounds for hens, 7^ pounds for cockerels and 6}i pounds for 
pullets. The weights for the Whites are one pound lighter. See 

Fig. 15. 

Popularity. — The Minorcas have long been a popular fowl in all 
sections of the country, and this popularity has been attained 
solely on the merits of this breed. They are non-sitters and year- 



MINORCAS 



31 



round layers. For table purposes they would be classed as "fair." 
Their flesh is sweet and juicy, but owing to its being white, and 
the shanks black or slate-color, it is discounted by American 
housewives, who prefer a yellow-skinned carcass. While the Leg- 
horns as a class surpass the Minorcas in the number of eggs laid, 
the latter are considered to lay a larger egg, and to equal the Leg- 
horn in actual bulk of egg material. 







Fig. 15. — Single Comb White Minorca. 



In recent years, however, so much improvement has been made 
in the Leghorn in the way of selecting layers of large-size eggs, 
that I am inclined to think this superiority of the Minorca is 
more romance than fact. I have seen whole flocks of Leghorns 
that laid uniformly large eggs, eggs that seemed out of all propor- 
tion to the hens' bodies. 

Good Breed for Farmers. — Minorcas make a desirable fowl for 
the farmer ; they have an active disposition and are excellent fora- 



32 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



gers. Perhaps their most striking feature is the comb, which is 
almost ponderous in size and quite thick. This feature is often 
raised as an objection because of the susceptibility to frost bite. 
In climates where the winters are long and severe Minorcas are 
not to be recommended on this account. This huge comb and 
proportionately pendulous wattles offer another disadvantage in 
marketing the fowls for table poultry. Large combs are con- 
sidered an indication of age, which makes it difficult for dealers 




Fig. 1 6. — White-Faced Black Spanish. 



to secure top prices. Then, too, buyers do not want to pay fancy 
prices for this extra weight, which is, after all, waste. To obviate 
this drawback the combs of dressed birds are often torn off, but 
this removal presents an unattractive appearance, and is suscep- 
tible of deception. 

Black Spanish fowls, sometimes called White-Faced Black 
Spanish, constitute one of the oldest varieties of domestic poul- 
try, and are probably the oldest pure-bred fowl in the Mediter- 



BLACK SPANISH 33 

ranean class. Moubray, one of the earliest writers on poultry, 
includes this variety in his descriptions of fowls. See Fig. 16. 

They were more widely bred in this country a quarter of a cen- 
tury ago than now, probably because of the increased popularity 
of the Leghorn. In size they are about equal to the White Min- 
orca, though their mold is somewhat different, being shorter and 
perhaps more erect. Their haughty bearing, and the white face 
and lobes peculiar to the breed, contrasting with their glossy 
black plumage, render them strikingly beautiful birds. This dis- 
tinguishing white face, rising well over the eyes and extending to 
the back of the head, should be pure white and free from wrinkles. 
The greater the extent of surface the better. Needless to say, 
this is the one difficult problem in breeding Spanish, though from 
a fancier's point of view it is this very feature that adds interest. 

Black Spanish lay a white-shelled egg, and for productiveness 
and other qualifications they can be rated with the Minorca. 
The males are said to be wonderful fighters, and to be capable of 
holding their own against all comers, save the Games. Recently 
they have not been bred in any numbers except by fanciers. 
Lack of the more accepted utility qualities is probably the reason 
for this falling off in popularity. 

The Andalusian, sometimes called the Blue Andaiusian, the 
prefix "blue " being superfluous, since there is only the one variety 
of this breed, has the rather unique distinction of wearing the 
national colors. See Fig. 17. The face, eyes, comb and wattles 
are red, the ear-lobes are white, and the plumage is a beautiful 
light and dark blue. 

There is considerable confusion concerning the origin of this 
breed. Judging from its name, it might have come from Anda- 
lusia, a province in Spain, which is celebrated for its bulls for the 
ring, though Mr. Weir, an English authority on poultry, who 
visited this section with the view to learning something about this 
breed, failed to find any convincing evidence. 

Anatomically the Andalusians and Minorcas are noticeably 
alike, though the former are somewhat smaller, the standard 
weight for cocks being 6 pounds, for hens and cockerels 5 pounds, 
3 



34 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



and for pullets 4 pounds. For farm purposes they are an admir- 
able breed, good layers, non-sitters, active and vigorous. The 
chicks are hardy and mature early, and the pullets begin laying 
at five or six months of age. They are rather difficult to breed a 
uniform color in large flocks, because the plumage is likely to show 
many shades of blue, from light gray to a slate-black. 

The Jersey Blue, once very popular as a farm fowl, is some- 











Fig. 17. — Andalusian Fowls. 



times confused with the Andalusian, but this is a mistake. The 
Jersey Blue was the counterpart of the Andalusian in disposition 
and color, but favored the Brahma in size and shape. Jersey 
Blues were large fowls, and bore indications of a cross between 
Asiatic and Spanish breeds. 

The Ancona, or Mottled Ancona, is one of the least common 
varieties of the Mediterranean class. See Fig. 18. In shape and 



ANCONAS AND HAM BURGS 



35 



size and general characteristics they are the same as the Leghorn. 
They are hardy, quick to mature, and are prolific layers of white- 
shelled eggs. Recognition of their virtues as Egg Machines is 
becoming more widespread every year. The color of the plumage 
should be a beetle-green or lustrous greenish-black, with about 
every fifth feather tipped with white. This mottling should be 
uniform throughout, with no tendency to lacing. It is this uni- 




Fig. 1 8. — Single Comb Mottled Anconas. 



formity that makes for careful selection at breeding times. Like 
the Leghorn, there is no standard weight for the Anconas. They 
are Italian fowls, and are sometimes referred to as 'such. 

The Hamburgs originated in Holland and derived their name 
from the city of Hamburg. See Fig. 19. They are one of the 
oldest standard bred fowls, and were first known as the Dutch 
Every-Day Layers, or Dutch Everlasting Layers. They are in 



36 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



the front rank of egg producers to this day, but lay rather small 
eggs, and for this reason they are outstripped by the- Leghorns. 
They are small in size, and by some are considered as ornamentals. 
There is no mistake concerning their beauty, the Hamburg, espe- 
cially the Silver Spangled variety, is one of the most beautiful, 
striking domestic fowls. 

There are six varieties of this breed, the Silver Spangled, 
Golden Spangled, Silver Laced, Golden Laced, White, and Black. 




Fig. 19. — Golden Spangled Hamburgs. 



The first named variety is probably the most popular. Hamburgs 
are economical fowls to keep, beside being small eaters, they are 
great foragers. The only serious objection to them is the small- 
ness of their egg. By careful selection this may be remedied and 
the size of the egg improved. One of the distinctive features of 
the Hamburg is its rose comb, which should be developed into a 
straight spike. There are no standard weights given for Ham- 
burgs. 



HOUDANS 



37 



The blood from the Hamburgs has been used in establishing 
some of our most useful American breeds. Though they breed 
remarkably true to color and shape, especially for fowls that have 
such a wide range of color, the problem of securing perfection 
demands the skill and patience of the most inveterate fancier. 
In this country, they are bred more for exhibition purposes than 
anything else. 




Fig. 20. — Sicilian Buttercups. 



French Breeds. — There are three varieties of poultry listed in 
the French class — Houdans, Crevecoeurs and La Fleche. Of 
these, only the Houdans can be classified as an egg breed, and, in 
fact, they might just as well be called a dual-purpose fowl, for 
they are highly esteemed for table purposes. See Fig. 21. They 
are the most popular French breed in this country, and while not 
raised in such large numbers as many other varieties of chickens, 
still they are bred to a fair extent throughout the States. 



38 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Houdans are hardy, prolific layers of white-shelled eggs, non- 
sitters and light feeders. They have small bones and the flesh is 
tender and of a delicious flavor. It is white, however, which is 
discredited in America as prime table poultry. Some day it is 
to be hoped we will get over this foolish prejudice. 

Crested Variety. — Houdans are a crested variety; their crest 
or "top knot" is their most conspicuous mark of distinction. 
Another peculiarity is their having five toes, like the Dorking. 







Fig. 21. — White Houdans. 



Both sexes have a V-shaped comb which rests against the front 
of the crest. It is often partly hidden by the crest. Houdans have 
mottled plumage, black and white, with the black predominating. 
Recently a variety of White Houdans has been developed, which 
is quite attractive. The standard weight of the Houdan is 7>2 
pounds for cocks, 6}4 pounds for hens and cockerels, and 5>£ 
pounds for pullets. 

Campines. — Though comparatively new in America, the Cam- 



SILVER CAMPINES 



39 



pine (pronounced kampeen) is a very old breed, and derives its 
name from the sandy plains of La Campine, in Belgium. See 
Fig. 22. Thus we are accustomed to credit this country with the 
ancestral dignity of this breed. Lapse of centuries and the ab- 
sence of authentic records make it impossible to trace the exact 
origin of the Campines, though tradition has it that they were 
first taken into Flanders (Belgium and northern France) by 
Charlemagne from the shores of the Mediterranean. They cer- 




msss?-- 



Fig. 22. — Silver Campines. 



tainly bear a close resemblance to other Mediterranean varieties, 
especially the Leghorn, in shape and habits, though not so much 
in color. The color of the Campine is quite distinctive, and prob- 
ably creates the greatest interest in the breed. 

There are two color varieties of Campines, Silvers and Goldens. 
Both lay a white-shelled egg, and the fowls are precisely the same 
in shape, size and general characteristics. It is said that the 
Goldens are likely to lay a slightly tinted white egg, and that they 



40 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



are more difficult to breed true to color in plumage. The ground 
color of the Silver is white, in the Golden it is yellow. 

Both varieties were admitted to the American Standard in 
1893, but through lack of interest in the breeds, due chiefly to 
the absence of a uniform size, shape, and color, they were dropped 
in 1898. These defects, if they should be termed such, did not 




Fig. 23. — White Aseels. 



make the fowls any the less valuable for utility purposes, but 
the early importations were too crude and indefinite for the 
American fancier. 

Even at this date their color qualifications are open to argu- 
ment, though in the past ten years they have been greatly im- 
proved and standardized, especially by the English breeders. 



THE BRAEKEL 41. 

The breeds are now pretty widely bred in this country, and in- 
variably render an excellent account of themselves. 

Plumage. — It is generally accepted that the ideal plumage 
should represent two distinct colors, silvery white (substituting 
golden yellow for the Golden variety), overlaid by black barrings 
that possess a rich purplish green sheen. The barrings should be 
clean-cut, about three times the width of the ground color, and 
run transversely across the feather, with such regularity as to 
form the appearance of rings around the bird's body. With due 
allowance for a slight departure in the breast, wings, and tail, 
every feather should conform to this idea of symmetry, excepting 
the neck hackle, which is clear white, or clear yellow, in both 
sexes. 

The Braekel (sometimes spelled Brackel) is a similar breed, 
frequently confused with the Campine, and is also indigenous to 
Belgium. It flourished in the more fertile regions of the southern 
districts, where it is supposed to have gained greater size. Both 
have the same progenitors, there can be no mistake on this point, 
but the Braekel, having the good fortune to live in a plenteous 
land, waxed big and fat, whereas her northern sister, the Cam- 
pine, residing in a less fruitful section, was obliged to pass a more 
frugal existence. In consequence her growth was in proportion 
to her living, small and lean. This training, however, has made 
the Campine a very thrifty fowl, and given it a hardihood and 
vigor for which it is celebrated. 

The two names, Campine and Braekel, were intermingled — 
large and small Campines, and large and small Braekels — until 
about fifteen years ago, when the English fanciers took up the 
breeds and set about standardizing them, and at the same time 
eliminating several objectionable features. They found the Cam- 
pine too small, and by infusing Braekel blood increased the size. 
The Braekel, however, had a white saddle hackle, similar to the 
neck hackle, which was objectionable, because it required a 
double mating to secure any degree of uniformity in the color of 
the plumage. 

By careful selection this white saddle was removed ; in fact, 



42 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



the hackle feathers themselves were eliminated, until to-day we 
have the males feathered on the saddles precisely the same as the 
females, or what is termed "hen-feathered males." This develop- 
ment of the breed became known as the Improved English Cam- 
pine, and is the accepted standard to-day. 

The carriage and mold of the Campine is alert and graceful, 
and may be compared to the Leghorn or Hamburg. In size and 




Fig. 24. — Long- Tailed Yokohamas. 



weight it is also the counterpart of these other egg breeds. The 
comb of the male is of fair size, with an erect blade; in the female 
it falls gracefully to one side. Like other breeds of the Mediter- 
ranean class, the Campine is rated as a non-sitting variety. The 
hens seldom become broody, and if they do, they are easily dis- 
couraged. 



PROMINENT EYE 



43 



A large prominent eye is peculiar to this interesting breed. It 
is a brilliant red, and like the proverbial hawk's eye, it is always 
searching and never failing in its accuracy. It seems almost to be 
endowed with a kind of supernatural power, an obscure sense of 
being aware of the existence of an object before the object has 
actually appeared. This readiness of eye, coupled with a wonder- 
ful sagacity, and strong constitutional vigor, serves to make the 







3ii 






Fig. 25. — Silver Laced Polish. 



Campine a peerless forager, and easily adaptable to any condi- 
tions. 

Campines resemble game birds in many respects. They are 
strong flyers, fast runners and good fighters, yet no fowl is more 
domesticated than the Campine, and none more docile and re- 
sponsive. Though quick to scent an enemy, they are almost 
equally quick to make friends with the attendant or feeder. The 



44 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

writer's tamest pets in the poultry yard were Silver Campines. 
They haunted the kitchen door for tid-bits, and at the first oppor- 
tunity would enter the house and beg for food. An English Bull 
Terrier and these Campines often ate from the same platter at 
the same time. 

A breed that will show the maximum production at the least 
expense is the desirable commercial fowl, and on this score the 
Campine extends her challenge to the world. Not that Campines 
are necessarily smaller feeders than other breeds of the same size, 
for they are not; but if given the opportunity they will forage 
for two-thirds of their food. Furthermore, they will thrive out- 
doors the greater part of the year, and all year, if the climate is 
at all temperate. They resemble the guinea in this respect. 

Energy of Campines. — In any kind of weather, rain, wind, heat, 
and cold, when most other breeds are content to remain snugly 
indoors, the Campine is abroad, wrestling for its daily keep. In 
fact, from close observations I have concluded that if a Campine 
seeks shelter, it is an ill omen, similar to that drawn from the 
guinea's entering the hen house at night, that a terrific storm is 
in the making, and that it is high time to make things snug and 
secure. 

It is always unwise, and sometimes inhuman, to neglect birds 
or animals of any kind; yet there are various degrees of negli- 
gence. In most cases where chickens are raised in the backyard 
or on the farm the owner is unable to devote any more time to the 
flock than is required by the bare necessities — feeding and water- 
ing. The point to be emphasized is this: where it is impossible 
to give frequent attention to the needs and requirements of a 
flock of chickens, that flock should consist of a breed that is com- 
petent to shift for itself. The Campine is an ideal fowl for this 
purpose. Literally speaking, it will thrive where many other 
birds would starve. 

Redcaps. — There is another breed frequently classed as an egg- 
variety, though it is seldom found in the poultry yards of this 
country — the Redcap. This is the modern name for a very old 
English breed, commonly bred in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Stafford- 



RED CAPS 45 

shire and Cumberland. Its exact origin is unknown. Redcaps 
were called by different names in different localities, such as Cop- 
heads, Corals, Rosetops, Redheads, Derbyshire Redcaps and 
Yorkshire Everlayers. 

The colors of the Redcaps are red, brown and black, the red a 
mahogany tint, and the black a bluish black. Each body feather 
ends with a black spangle, shaped like a half-moon, in which re- 
spect they resemble the Hamburgs. They have a large rose comb, 
terminating in the rear in a well-developed, straight spike. The 
cock, especially, is a very handsome bird. The hens lay large-size 
white-shelled eggs and are generally prolific. The standard 
weights call for 7^2 pounds for cocks, 6 pounds for hens and cock- 
erels, and 5 pounds for pullets. 

Of late years, probably due to the improvement and increased 
popularity of some other breeds, the Redcaps have lost caste, 
notwithstanding their many useful, practical qualities. In habit 
they are alert, given to roaming, and somewhat wild unless 
thoughtfully managed. Their flesh is light and of a good flavor, 
though not so rich as some of the meat varieties. 



CHAPTER IV 
MEAT BREEDS 

Definition. — The term "meat breeds" is intended to designate 
those varieties of chickens whose greatest usefulness lies in the 
production of meat. Do not be misled by this definition. It does 
not mean that these meat breeds are only useful for the produc- 
tion of meat alone ; nor that others of the dual-purpose and other 
classes are undesirable as meat producers. The term simply 
means that these breeds excel in this branch of the poultry in- 
dustry, reasons for which will become apparent in the following 
paragraphs. 

Largest Fowls. — As might be expected, the meat breeds are 
the largest fowls, the heaviest, broader and deeper in the body, 
with a full breast, heavy limbs, and relatively short legs and neck. 
They are mostly of Asiatic origin, and are popularly conceived to 
be rather poor layers, persistent sitters, weak fliers, docile and 
easily controlled. They lay large brown eggs, which are not likely 
to run so high in fertility as the lighter breeds, consequently they 
are seldom used in the day-old-chick trade. Because of their size 
their development is slow, or rather a longer time is required for 
them to reach maturity. Leghorns mature in from five to six 
months, sometimes earlier; whereas the Asiatic Breeds take from 
eight to ten months, often longer. The chicks do not feather 
quickly, and are often almost nude at the age of two months. 
This feature has its advantages and disadvantages. Chicks that 
start to feather as soon as they leave the shell, such as the Leg- 
horns, are often weakened by this rapid growth of plumage. On 
the other hand, chicks that are bare of feathers are sometimes 
affected by cold weather in the early Spring hatches. 

The leading varieties of the Asiatic class are the Brahmas, 

46 



B RAH MAS 



47 



Cochins and the Langshans. The Brahmas are conceded to be 
the most popular, and are divided into two varieties, Light Brah- 
mas and Dark Brahmas, of which the former are the most widely 
bred. 

The Light Brahma is the largest chicken. See Fig. 26. The 
standard weight calls for 12 pounds for cocks, 10 pounds for 
cockerels, g}4 pounds for hens, and 8 pounds for pullets. These 
weights are often exceeded ; I have seen specimens that weighed 
from twelve to seventeen pounds, regular giants, they seemed. 




Fig. 26. — Light Brahmas. 

History. — It would take a large volume to hold the history of 
the Light Brahma. It was probably the first breed of poultry to 
be popularized in this country, where it was greatly improved by 
American fanciers. Though fundamentally an Asiatic, it is really 
an American output. They were first known as Brahma Pootras, 
Gray Shanghais, Chittagongs and Cochin Chinas. In fact, the 
early breeders were disposed to give them high-sounding, fanciful 
names, for the sake of the benefit these names might have in 



48 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

helping them to sell stock at fancy prices. Records show that in 
many cases fabulous prices were received. The hen fever ran 
high about this time, which was in the early fifties. There was a 
craze for pure-bred poultry, and the Light Brahma occupied the 
center of attraction. In later years their popularity abated some- 
what with the advent of other breeds, though to this day they 
still remain high in the esteem of poultry lovers who prefer a 
heavy fowl. 

Shape.— The Brahma is different from the other meat breeds, 
and must not be confounded with the Cochin or the Langshan. 
It has a long, deep body, with full, broad and round breast, carried 
well forward, which is characteristic of prolific birds. It is by far 
the best layer of the Asiatic breeds. Numerous hens have made 
enviable records in laying contests, though the average flock pro- 
duction should be placed at about ten dozen per year. 

The plumage of the Light Brahma is white and black, with the 
white predominating. Any other color is a disqualification. The 
body plumage is white, the tail feathers are black, with the sickles 
a greenish black. The neck hackle is white with a black stripe 
running down the center of each feather and terminating in a 
point. The shanks are well feathered, with the feathering ex- 
tending down the middle toe. This feathering may be white, or 
white marked with black. 

Feathered shanks and toes is probably the most distinguishing 
feature of the meat breeds, for all of the Asiatics have them. 

The Light Brahma has a small pea comb; its face, wattles and 
earlobes are a bright red. The shanks and toes are yellow. 

Brahmas are excellent mothers; they will hatch and rear large 
broods of chicks. In fact, their maternal instincts constitute a 
drawback to the poultryman who is after eggs in large numbers. 
For capons the Brahma is in a class by itself; it has size, shape, a 
small comb and all the other qualifications that make for prime 
table poultry. 

Dark Brahmas are not so popular, and never have been. This 
is due to the great difficulty of breeding them true to a uniform 
color. The head and neck of a Dark Brahma male are similar to 



COCHINS 



49 



the Light for hackle, but the neck other than the hackle should be 
black. The back is silvery white, the breast is black, the thighs 
are black, and the fluff either black, solid, or very slightly mottled 
with white. The saddle feathers are similar to the neck hackle, 
and as they approach the tail the stripes become a broader black 
until they merge into the tail coverts, which are a glossy, greenish- 
black. The wing coverts are greenish-black, the secondaries and 




Fig. 27. — White Cochins. 



flight feathers are mostly black, and the shank feathering is black, 
or black mottled with white. 

The weights of the Dark Brahmas are one pound lighter than 
the Light Brahmas, or about the same weights as the Cochins. 
The plumage of the Dark Brahma hen is a white ground, closely 
penciled with a dark steel gray. This produces a beautiful effect, 
if it is correct ; but unless extreme care is taken in the mating, the 
plumage is likely to be a dingy color, and lack uniformity. 

The Cochins probably rank next to the Brahmas as meat 
breeds, and are bred in four colors: Buff, Partridge, White and 
4 



50 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Black. See Fig. 27. The Buffs are the most widely bred; they 
are, indeed, beautiful birds, and have a color that is golden 
throughout in both sexes. They have the purest buff color of 
any of the buff breeds of poultry, and have been used quite exten- 
sively in improving this color in other breeds. They are bred with 
loose feathers, so that the general effect is that of a ball of feathers. 
The shank feathering is more profuse than the Brahmas. And 
unlike the Brahmas, the Cochins have a small, single comb. In 




Fig. 28. — Partridge Cochins. 



disposition it might be said without fear of controversy the Co- 
chins are the least restive of all fowls. They have a quiet, sluggish 
nature, and are the most determined sitters. They stand confine- 
ment well, and may be restrained within a three-foot fence. 

The Partridge Cochin is a beautiful bird, but like all penciled 
varieties, it is difficult to breed true to color. See Fig. 28. The 
plumage arrangement of the Partridge Cochin is not unlike the 
Dark Brahma, except the colors are red and brown instead of 



LANGSHAN IS A RANGY BIRD 51 

steel-gray and black. In breeding penciled or parti-colored birds 
it is so often necessary to mate them so close in order to secure 
the correct characteristics, that the productiveness of the birds 
is likely to be slighted. In consequence a solid-color bird is the 
more practical one for the farmer or general market poulterer. 
They can be raised in large flocks with the least amount of atten- 
tion paid to color, and all the attention bestowed on their utility 
qualities. 

Black and White Cochins. — In this respect the Black Cochin 
or the White Cochin is the more desirable variety. The Black is 
of a rich, glossy, greenish-black throughout its entire plumage, 
and the White is pure white throughout. A flock of Black Co- 
chins present a handsome sight, and being dark they do not soil 
so readily, as do the Whites. On the other hand, the W'hites 
dress better for market purposes, for there are no dark pin feathers 
to mar the clean appearance of the flesh. 

Langshans are the smallest and the most active of the Asiatic 
breeds, also the most rangy-looking birds. See Fig. 29. They 
are bred in two colors, White and Black, and the latter is probably 
the most widely bred in this country. 

The Langshan is distinct from the Brahma or Cochin in shape. 
The male, especially, has a very majestic carriage, tall and stylish, 
not the least gawky, a splendid leader for the flock, attentive to 
the hens, and an excellent forager. Langshans are good sitters 
and mothers, and having a gentle disposition, they are ideal fowls 
for the farm. They are fair layers, particularly during the winter 
months, and the chicks are hardy and grow well. Langshan 
chicks mature earlier than the other Asiatic breeds. 

To the inexperienced eye some confusion exists between the 
Black Langshan and the Black Cochin; but this should not be. 
The Cochin is a stocky bird, with heavy-looking neck and legs, 
whereas the Langshan is very erect, with a high tail and sweeping 
curve to the neck. The Langshan fluff is moderate and close, 
while the Cochin fluff is extreme and loose. Then, too, the feath- 
ering on the shanks of the Langshan is not so profuse, and the 
shanks are longer in proportion. The comb of the Langshan is 



52 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



relatively larger than the Cochin's comb, well up in front, and 
arch-shaped. The wattles are longer and more pendulous. 

The quality of the flesh of the Langshan is all that could be 
desired in a sense; it is fine-grained, tender and nicely flavored; 
but it is white, a feature that is not so acceptable to American 
housewives. The skin of the Cochin is yellow. Another objec- 




Fig. 29. — White Langshans. 



tionable feature is the bluish-black shank in the Langshan. In 
the Cochin it is yellow. 

The plumage of the Black Langshan is a glossy, metallic black 
throughout; in the White it is pure white throughout. The stan- 
dard weight of cocks for both varieties is gyi pounds, for cockerels 
8 pounds, for hens 7>£ pounds, and for pullets 6>^ pounds. 



CHAPTER V 
DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS 

Definition. — The terms "dual-purpose" or "general-purpose," 
for the expressions are used interchangeably, are intended to 
designate such fowls as may be found useful and profitable in the 
production of both meat and eggs, and if need be — under condi- 
tions that require natural incubation. In other words, instead 
of possessing qualities of a particular nature, such as intensive 
egg production, "dual-purpose" birds are adapted to the com- 
mon and more general conditions of the country — the farmer and 
backyard poultry man. 

The farmer and backyard poultryman want hens that are good 
layers, of course, but they also want fowls that produce an abun- 
dance of meat, so that when the hens' days of usefulness in the 
egg basket are over, they can terminate their utility on the dinner 
table. 

The "dual-purpose" breeds meet these requirements. Most 
of them belong to the American class, in addition to which there 
are breeds of like type, such as the Orpingtons, Dorkings and 
Faverolles. We will take the American breeds first. There are 
no finer specimens of poultry in the world than these products of 
American fanciers. 

American Class. — The American Standard of Perfection of 
1910 admits six breeds in the American class, as follows: Ply- 
mouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Javas, Domin- 
iques and Buckeyes. The first three named breeds are the most 
widely bred, and of these three the Plymouth Rocks are un- 
doubtedly the most popular. It has been said, and there seems 
to be excellent ground for the opinion, that Plymouth Rocks, 

53 



54 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



notably the Barred variety, are the most widely bred fowls in 
America. They are business birds from the ground up ; intensely 
practical and utilitarian, at the same time they possess enough 
caste and beauty to satisfy the most fastidious fancier. In any 
climate, north, south, east or west, and in any locality or under 
any circumstances that will permit other fowls to live, there also 
will the Plymouth Rocks thrive and be of profit to their keeper. 




Fig. 30. — Barred Plymouth Rock. 



There are six varieties of Rocks, differing only in the color of 
their plumage: Barred, White, Buff, Silver-Penciled, Partridge 
and Columbian. See Figs. 8, 30, 31. Popular fancy delights in 
the sentiment that the Plymouth Rock was named after the land- 
ing place of the Pilgrim Fathers. This fancy exemplifies the en- 
during qualities of the breed ; but it must not be construed as 
establishing their age. The name was first given to a nondescript 



PLYMOUTH ROCKS 



55 



breed about 1849, but not until twenty years later was the real 
Plymouth Rock established. 

The Barred variety was the original Plymouth Rock, and to it 
rightfully belongs the title of the pioneer of American fancy 
poultry. See Fig. 30. There were two other breeds of fowls pro- 
duced before the Barred Rock, namely, the Dominique and the 




Fig. 31. — Columbian Plymouth Rocks 






Java, but at that time they were not bred to anything like a 
fixed standard, as were the Rocks. 

The weights of the Rocks show a betwixt-and-between fowl, 
cocks 9>£ pounds, cockerels 8 pounds, hens 7^ pounds, and 
pullets 6 pounds. Neither too small for meat purposes, nor too 
large for egg production, hence the name "dual-purpose." For 
the farmer or market poulterer these fowls are favorites, being of 
medium-size, well proportioned, with a deep, full, round breast. 
They are hardy, mature in about eight months, and are excellent 



56 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



layers the year round. The eggs are brown, as with all American 
breeds; the hens are good sitters and excellent mothers. 

The other varieties of Rocks followed in the wake of the Barred, 
of which the White, Buff and Columbian, in the order named, are 
the most widely bred. It is doubtful, however, if all of the other 
varieties combined, equal the popularity of the Barred Rock; it 
seems to stand supreme. Besides being a thoroughly practical 







Fig. 32. — Silver Wyandottes. 



fowl, it is highly esteemed by fanciers for exhibition purposes. 
No class is offered to keener competition in the show room. 

The Wyandottes stand next to the Rocks in popular favor. 
There are eight varieties, differing only in the color of their plum- 
age, as follows: White, Silver, Golden, Buff, Black, Partridge, 
Silver-Penciled, and Columbian. The Silver Wyandotte is the 
original and the foundation of all the other varieties. See Fig. 32. 
It was admitted to the Standard as the Wyandotte, and later, as 



EIGHT VARIETIES OF WYANDOTTES 



57 



the other varieties were brought out, it was called the Silver 
Laced Wyandotte, which has been shortened to Silver Wyandotte. 
The White Wyandotte is by far the most popular variety. See 
Fig. 7. In fact, it is conceded to be the most popular white fowl 
of all-round capabilities in the world. The popularity of the 
Plymouth Rocks was the main stimulus of the origin of the Wyan- 
dottes, which came into being about 1875, though they were not 




Fig- 33- — Columbian Wyandottes 



admitted to the Standard until about eight years later. They 
have been a huge success ever since. They weigh about a pound 
less than the Rocks, are prolific layers, easily cared for, and stand 
confinement well. For table poultry, especially broilers, they are 
ideal. They have plump, round bodies, and the flesh is sweet and 
of excellent flavor. Furthermore, the skin is a rich yellow, so 
much sought after by the average housewife. 



58 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



All Wyandottes have rose combs, which is an indication of 
Brahma blood in their make-up. The Rocks have a single comb, 
of moderate size. Often, the comb is the only distinguishing 
feature between some varieties of Wyandottes and Rocks. For 
example, except in shape, which is not always so apparent to the 
inexperienced eye, the Buff, White, Silver- Penciled, Partridge and 




Fig. 34. — Single Comb Rhode Island Reds. 

Columbian varieties of Wyandottes and Rocks are virtually the 
same, only for the difference in the comb. See Fig. 33. 

The Rhode Island Reds probably come third in popularity 
among the American breeds, and this popularity is growing by 
leaps and bounds. See Fig. 34. They are of comparatively recent 
origin, in the sense that they have only been admitted to the 
Standard since 1895; yet they are the result of over fifty years 
persistent breeding toward a very definite end. That goal was 



RHODE ISLAND REDS AND WHITES 



59 



to produce a utility fowl of red plumage, of the greatest hardihood 
and the most enduring qualities, and a fowl that would tend to 
great fecundity and all-round, general qualifications under all 
conditions and in any climate. 

The Reds are the result of out-crossing, rather than out- 
breeding, which probably accounts for their great vigor and pro- 
ductiveness. Out-crossing is the mating of breeds that are en- 




Fig- 35- — Black Javas. 



tirely foreign to each other; for instance, a Brahma mated to a 
Cornish fowl. Out-breeding is mating fowls of the same breed, 
but not related by blood. 

In the make-up of the Reds new males were used each year, 
but always of some red breed, such as Malay Games, Red Pit 
Games, and Brown Leghorns. The Red is truly a composite 
fowl. Many breeders were of the opinion that red plumage stood 
for stamina, and it is certain that this belief has been confirmed 
in the Rhode Island Red, at least. 



60 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



The Reds are divided into two varieties — single comb and rose 
comb. Except for these head points they are identical. ' In the 
past few years another division has been created — the Rhode 
Island Whites, which gives promise of making a splendid showing. 
There does not seem to be so much demand for another white 
breed, however, in view of the great popularity of the White Rock 
and White Wyandotte, not to mention the white varieties of 
numerous other breeds. 




Fig. 36. — Buckeyes. 






The Reds are ideal birds for farmers, not only because of their 
size and prolificness, but because their plumage is well adapted 
to farm conditions. Being dark in color, it does not soil so readily. 
The weights for the Reds are the same as for the Wyandottes, 
though the mold or contour of the former is not so round. 

The Javas, see Fig. 35, of which there are two varieties, Black 
and Mottled, the Dominiques and the Buckeyes complete the 
list of the purely American breeds. None are bred so extensively 



ENGLISH BREEDS 61 

as the breeds described above, though all of them are well suited 
to the class of general-purpose fowls. 

Buckeyes, named after the state of Ohio, where they were 
originated, were obtained from Barred Rock crosses on Buff 
Cochins, with an infusion of Cornish and Pit Game blood to give 
the flesh quantity, and the offspring vigor. See Fig. 36. In 1905 
they were admitted to the ranks of the Standard of Perfection. 

The name of the Dominique is closely interwoven with our 
early history of poultry, yet the real origin is very obscure. Some 
claim that the breed is a product of the Island of Dominica, but 
apparently this idea is purely fanciful, since a breed of these char- 
acteristics was never found there. A more reasonable theory is 
that the name just evolved — as an ambiguous term to cover a 
mixed origin. The similarity of the Barred Rock has no doubt 
been responsible for the falling off in the popularity of the Dom- 
inique, for it is no longer bred by so many poultrymen. In fact, 
it is seldom seen to-day. The same holds true of the Javas and 
the Buckeyes. 

For poultrymen specializing in eggs, we were glad to doff our 
hat to the sprightly little Leghorn ; it holds first place among all 
comers in the egg class. But, for all-round, general poultry busi- 
ness, which includes all of the different branches of the industry 
— eggs, meat, broilers, roasters, capons, feathers and maternal 
instincts, not to forget caste and beauty — the American breeds 
are at the top of the heap, and not likely to be supplanted. 

There are numerous other varieties closely resembling the 
American breeds in shape, disposition and size, and are commonly 
classed as general-purpose fowls. 

English Breeds. — First, let us take the English breeds. With- 
out question the most popular of these are the Orpingtons, of 
which there are ten or more distinct varieties, — single-comb 
White, single-comb Black, single-comb Buff, single-comb Span- 
gled, and single-comb Diamond Jubilee; also, rose-comb varieties 
of the same colors. See Fig. 37. In the past few years a couple 
of other varieties have been originated, notably the Blues, but 
these are so recent and bred in such limited numbers that we will 



62 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



not devote special attention to them. As a matter of fact, the 
Whites, Blacks and Buffs are the only varieties bred in large 
numbers in this country, and the Whites are the most popular of 
these. 

Orpingtons. — This remarkable family of fowls, and I qualify 
them as such because of the perfection and enormous popularity 
that they received in such a brief space of time, were originated 




Fig. 37. — Single-Comb Black Orpingtons. 

by one man, William Cook, of Orpington, England, whence they 
take their name. 

Mr. Cook had a definite object in producing these birds. He 
found that most of the old varieties of English poultry were inbred 
too closely for egg production, and that no one breed combined 
laying and table qualities to any marked degree. Then, too, he 
noted the success of the Plymouth Rocks in America, which were 
then coming to the fore, and he was determined to produce a like 



ORPINGTON FOWLS 63 

general utility fowl, one that would answer the prime requisites — 
eggs, table and show qualities. 

The first Orpingtons to be produced and exhibited by Mr. 
Cook were the Blacks. This was in 1886. In 1889 the Whites 
were brought out, and in 1894 the Buffs. Later the Jubilee and 
Spangled were developed. 

Composite Birds. — The Orpingtons are an amalgamation or 
composite bird, which is largely responsible for their productive- 
ness and vigor. We all know of the hardihood and other excellent 
qualities of the Barred Plymouth Rocks. The black sports, or 
"off colors" of this American breed were made the basis of the 
Black Orpington. To this was added Minorca blood, for produc- 
tiveness and to intensify the color, and finally Langshan blood, 
which was calculated to give the breed size and a superior flavor 
to the flesh. Several years were required to eliminate the feath- 
ered shanks of the Langshan. To this day stubs are likely to 
appear on the shanks of some specimens, indicating a throw-back, 
though as a whole the breed develops with unusual dependability 
as to type and color. 

Origin. — Mr. Cook realized that poultry raisers were more or 
less partial to buff colored fowls, therefore he set about producing 
the Buff Orpington, having the same characteristics as the Black 
as to shape, size and so on, but of buff plumage. The Cochin was 
the basis of this variety, crossed with Golden-Spangled Hamburg 
blood, and Dark Dorkings. He took the Hamburg for its laying 
qualities, and the Dorking for its length of breast and the quality 
of its meat. The latter had a fifth toe that required years to 
eliminate, which was only one of the many problems that had to 
be solved, for here again, in the Cochin, was the feathered shank. 
And the Orpington must have a clean shank. 

In producing the White Orpington Mr. Cook turned to the 
White Leghorn for color and productiveness, and to the Hamburg. 
For size and table qualities he used the White Dorking. With 
this combination it is no wonder that the White Orpingtons should 
have gained prominence as good layers. See Fig. 38. The chief 
difficulty in this cross arose from the tendency to throw cream- 



64 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



colored plumage, especially brassiness in the neck and saddle 
feathers. Even now this is a problem. There are few flocks that 
are entirely free from this defect, though each year satisfactory 
progress is being made. The females breed true without diffi- 
culty ; the trouble lies with the males, because of their hackles. 

The standard weights for Orpingtons are 10 pounds for cocks, 
S}4 pounds for cockerels, 8 pounds for hens, and 7 pounds for 




Fig. 38. — Single-Comb White Orpingtons. 



pullets. These run about a half-pound heavier than the weights 
called for in the Plymouth Rocks. In shape the Orpington re- 
sembles the Wyandotte or Cochin more than it does the Rock, 
since it is a round, short-legged, short-necked, chunky sort of 
fowl. The plumage, too, is more fluffy than the Rock, thereby 
giving the Orpington a more rotund appearance. 

All Orpingtons lay exceedingly well, and they are exceptionally 
good winter layers. From the writer's experience, which seems 



ORPINGTON EGGS 65 

to be borne out by the experiences of others, though the opinion 
may be denied by some, the eggs are not so large as they might be, 
nor so uniform in shape, texture nor color as is to be desired by 
poultrymen catering to a fancy egg trade. The eggs have not 
the "egg-shape" nor uniformity of Rock eggs. They are rounder 
and more elliptical in contour, and are given to a polished surface 




Fig- 39- — Silver-Gray Dorkings. 



rather than a dull, matt surface, which makes the characteristic 
"bloom" of a Rock egg so desirable. 

I have found this virtue about the Orpington, however, it 
matures earlier than the Rock, and can be made to put on more 
weight at the least expense. Furthermore, the Orpington is not 
so prone to put on fat, which means that they are better able to 
stand forced feeding for egg production. 

The habits and demeanor of the Orpingtons are practicallv the 
5 



66 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



same as the American breeds. They are quiet birds, easily made 
pets, are confined within low fences, become broody, sit and hatch 
well, and make excellent mothers. The chicks are hardy and grow 
rapidly, and make good broilers at an early age. 

The meat of the Orpington is delicious. It is soft, juicy and 
abundant. But, unfortunately for American markets, which cater 
to yellow-skinned poultry, the skin of the Orpington is a pinkish- 
white. In the Blacks it is likely to be a bluish-white. Moreover, 




■p^';j 



Fig. 40. — Rose Comb White Dorkings. 



the shanks are pink instead of yellow. In the Blacks they are 
bluish-black. It is an absurd notion, but these qualities are some- 
times interpreted to be indications of cold storage poultry. 

Poultry growers are gradually educating the public on the 
fallacies of its prejudices, and in time they will succeed, in which 
event the Orpington will rank among the best of the meat-pro- 
ducing breeds. In Europe, and we are inclined to concede the 
honors to its chefs, notably the French, the white-skinned fowls 
are acknowledged to be more highly esteemed. 



DORKINGS AND FAVEROLLES 



67 



The Dorkings, of which there are three varieties — White, 
Silver-Gray, and Colored, constitute another favorite English 
breed, and one of the oldest of domestic fowls. There are no 
accurate records to show its exact origin, but the supposition is 
that it was carried to England by the Romans. 

Weight. — The Dorking is not so heavy as the Orpington, but 
it is highly prized for table meat. See Fig. 39. The flesh is 
white and possesses a very delicate texture and flavor, and there 




Fig. 41. — White Faverolles. 

is an abundance of meat on the breast, which is broad, deep and 
full. The weights given for Dorkings are somewhat variable; 
the Colored Dorkings are heaviest : 9 pounds for cocks, 8 pounds 
for cockerels, 7 pounds for hens, and 6 pounds for pullets. The 
standard weights for the Silver-Gray Dorking run about a pound 
under the above, while the weights for the White Dorking are 
about a half-pound under the Silver-Grays. 

Fifth Toe. — The most distinguishing feature of this breed is 
the presence of a fifth toe, or supernumerary toe, extending a 



68 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



little behind, above the foot and below the. spur, similar to the 
fifth toe of the Houdan. 

Dorkings could not be rated as a popular breed in this coun- 
try. They are rather indifferent layers, and while nice looking 
fowls, there are too many other breeds of superior qualities. 

Faverolles. — Excepting in France, very little was known of 
the Faverolles until 1896, when they were taken up by English 




Fig. 42. — La Fleche Fowls. 



breeders and later, by Americans. They are bred in several 
colors, white, salmon, ermine and black. The Whites and the 
Salmons are probably the most popular in this country. See 
Fig.41. They are considered good layers, and weighing about 
the same as the Dorkings, they are valued as table poultry. 

The odd feature of the Faverolle is the growth of feathers, 
resembling a beard and mutton chops, around the throat and 
ears. This whiskering is one of the fixed characteristics of the 
entire breed. Another feature is the fifth toe, like the Dorking, 



FRENCH BREEDS 



69 



also, a booted or feathered shank, such as is found on the Brahma. 
For those who prefer the unusual, the Faverolle is to be highly 
recommended. Because so little is known about it, however, 
its sale for breeding purposes is likely to be restricted. 

Crevecoeurs and La Fleche fowls are two other French breeds 
little known in this country, though they are widely bred in their 
native homes. See Figs. 42 and 43. They are kept for general 







Fig. 43. — Crevecoeurs. 



farm purposes, but are best for the table. The former are the 
better layers. The weights of both breeds are about the same 
as the Dorkings. 

The plumage of the Fleche fowls is a glossy, greenish black. 
Their chief claim to distinction is the peculiar comb, which is 
in the form of two well defined spikes, resembling horns. Cre- 
vecoeurs have a similar comb, only it looses its distinction by 
reason of the crest of feathers growing on the top of its head, like 
the Houdan or Polish. 



CHAPTER VI 
ORNAMENTAL FOWLS, GAMES AND BANTAMS 

Ornamental Varieties. — Some varieties of poultry are purely 
ornamental in character and purpose. They have no particular 
virtues as to egg production, neither are they superior for table 
purposes. The Bantams are in this class. They are raised 
simply for the interest attached to their oddity or beauty. Other 
breeds are deemed fancy, by reason of some unusual character- 
istic, or scarcity, though in reality they may be good layers, or 
splendid table poultry. Custom has placed them in the orna- 
mental class, because few are adapted to the farm or general 
commercial use. It is easily understood that the more varie- 
gated the fowl's plumage, or the more eccentric its shape and 
feathering, the more difficult, almost impossible it is to breed 
them to any degree of uniformity in large flocks. Ornamental 
breeds almost invariably require special matings, and years of 
experience to know how to make such matings, hence their ap- 
peal to the fancier. 

No one will deny that the work of raising fowls for purely 
ornamental purposes is most interesting, and some fanciers have 
found a big outlet for their products, thereby making their work 
profitable, but these cases are the exceptions and not the rule. 
Those who would enter the poultry industry for pecuniary gain 
had better start with one of the breeds described in the earlier 
chapters of this Analysis of Chickens, such as the egg breeds, 
meat breeds, or dual-purpose breeds. 

The Polish varieties are generally regarded as strictly fancy 
chickens, though they are known to be one of the oldest breeds 
of pure-bred fowls. Their ancestry has been traced back to the 

70 



TOP KNOT CHICKENS 



71 



sixteenth century. The eight varieties of Polish are: White 
Crested Black (see Fig. 44), Bearded Golden, Bearded Silver, 
Bearded White, Buff Laced, Non-Bearded Golden, Non-Bearded 
Silver, and Non-Bearded White. (See Figs. 25-45-46.) 

It will be seen that there are two distinct sub-breeds of Polish, 
the plain, or non-bearded varieties, and the bearded ones. All 
have crests, or "top knots," which is their chief mark of distinc- 
tion, in addition to which the bearded varieties have a thick, 



r 










- 












i'*.-, .'" 












' : ''\'-fv: 


J 






;V>£ vVv'" 






dlp^ 




















^--T 4j 




• * ~^-'-~— 






mm 


Pf- 


iujk- 



















A& 









*&$ 






Fig. 44. — White-Crested Black Polish. 



full beard of feathers running under the beak from eye to eye in 
a graceful curve. The plain varieties are without this beard. 

The White-Crested Black is the most extensively bred in this 
country, and the Bearded Silver variety probably comes next. 
They are beautiful fowls, all of them, and by some are considered 
good layers. As with all crested varieties of fowls, their "top 
knots" are really against them. This head feathering obstructs 
the vision, causing them to be timid and suspicious, an easy 



72 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



prey to vermin, and much subject to colds if the birds are allowed 
to run in the wet. No standard weights are given for Polish. 
They are medium-size birds, about that of Leghorns. 

The Sultans, as the name implies, are from Turkey, and might 
with propriety be classed with the Polish, except the former have 
additional peculiarities. Sultans, in fact, possess about every 
peculiarity possible for a fowl of its size. A compact crest sur- 
mounts the head, more profuse even than the Polish, and they 
are full bearded. For a comb they have two small spikes, re- 




'^^M^z 



Fig. 45. — Bearded Golden Polish. 



minding one of horns; their legs are feathered and booted, their 
hocks are vultured, and they possess a fifth, or supernumerary 
toe. They have an abundant neck hackle and a large tail, which 
is erect and contains many flowing sickles. The color of the 
plumage is pure white throughout. They seem to thrive well, 
but are too small for practical purposes. 

The Game is one of the most interesting of the ornamental 
breeds, and perhaps the most widely bred. It is noted for its 



GAMES AND GAME BANTAMS 



73 



vigor and courage, and were formerly raised for fighting. They 
are still raised for this purpose in countries where cock-fighting 
is permitted. 

The beauty of the Game is unquestioned. It is a tall, slim 
bird, very erect in carriage, with long legs, and short, close 
feathering. The carriage of the Game is peculiar to it, and is 
spoken of as "station." Specimens with the highest "station" 







are the most desirable. It is customary to remove the comb and 
wattles of the cocks, a practice that is termed "dubbing." This 
adds to their sleekness and general fighting trim. 

Games are not without their practical qualities, though they 
are seldom bred for general farm purposes. They are fair layers, 
and their flesh is excellent, the meat being fine-grained, tender 
and juicy. The chicks are said to require considerable care, but 



74 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



this is probably due to weakened constitutions from too much 
close breeding for strictly ornamental purposes. There is no 
reason why the Game should not be as easy to rear as the Leg- 
horn. 

The varieties of the Games are: Black-Breasted Red, Brown 







,mmmm 



w$iwl0. 



Fig. 47. — Silver Duckwing Games. 



Red, Golden Duckwing, Silver Duckwing (see Fig. 47), Birchen, 
Red Pyle, White, and Black. 

Game Bantams. — For every Game there is a Game Bantam. 
See Fig. 48. The color of the plumage in the Bantam, its mark- 
ings, shape and carriage correspond precisely to the Game that 
bears its name. The Bantam's diminutive size is the only dis- 



ORIENTAL GAMES AND BANTAMS 



75 



tinguishing feature between the two. Bantam cocks average 
twenty-two ounces, and the hens twenty ounces. 

Oriental fowls comprise the Cornish, Sumatras and Malays, 
and the Malay Bantams. Cornish fowls, sometimes spoken of 
as Cornish Indian Games, are really an English product, having 
been originated in Cornwall, whence their name. They were 
produced from Black-Breasted Red Games crossed on Red Aseel 




mm 



Fig. 48. — Red Pyle Game Bantams. 

fowls imported from India. This cross produced what is known 
as the Dark Cornish. There are three varieties: Dark, White, 
and White-Laced Red. See Figs. 9-49. The Whites were pro- 
duced from "sports" from the dark variety, crossed with White 
Aseel. See Fig. 23. The White-Laced are of Yankee origin, 
using both the Dark and White varieties, with some infusion of 
White Georgia Game blood. 



76 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Cornish. — As layers the Cornish fowls do not rank very high, 
but they make excellent table poultry. They are frequently 
crossed with the meat breeds for this purpose, especially for 
capons. The shape of the Cornish creates the impression of 
massiveness and great muscular strength, also pugnaciousness. 
They are stockily built birds, with heavy thighs, legs set far 




Fig. 49. — White Cornish Fowls. 



apart, and a full round breast and broad shoulders. Then, too, 
they have the characteristic feathering of the Game— closely 
set, thin hackle and small tails, which gives them a rather fero- 
cious appearance. The standard weights of the Cornish are 9 
pounds for cocks, 8 pounds for cockerels, 7 pounds for hens, and 
6 pounds for pullets. It will be seen from these weights that 
they are very worthy birds for the table. 



MALAYS AND SUMATRAS 



77 



Malays are little known in this country except for crossing 
with other breeds to infuse vigor and size. They have about the 
same weights as the Cornish, and are strong and powerful look- 
ing. They are reputed to be extremely savage, and in battle 
often actually tear their opponents to pieces. The plumage of 
the Malay is very close, like other Games, only perhaps more 




Fig. 50. — Silver Sebright Bantams-. 



scanty, and the color is red or maroon and black. The head is 
long, with a projecting crown, which gives the cock a cruel and 
fierce expression. The wattles and earlobes are small. 

Sumatras, or Black Sumatra Games, differ from the Malays, 
in that they are of a gentle disposition, though once started in 
a conflict, there is no Game that will show greater staying power 



78 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



than the Sumatra, especially if it is in defense of its mates and 
young. The quality that really removes the Sumatra from the 
Pit Game class is its long, flowing tail, with an abundance of 
sickles and coverts. The plumage is of a rich, greenish black 
throughout. Sumatras and Malays are little bred in America 
except for exhibition purposes, and even this is more or less 
restricted. 



■■''■ . 
■ 




Fig. 51. — Rose-Comb White Bantams. 



The Malay Bantam, or Black-Breasted Red Malay Bantam, 
should be the same in color, shape and general characteristics as 
the full-size Malay. Cocks should not weigh over 30 ounces, 
nor the hens over 28 ounces. 

Other Bantams. — In addition to the Bantams previously 
described, there are numerous other varieties, almost all of which 
are made to imitate in miniature the standard size breeds of 
fowls. There are: Sebright Bantams (see Fig. 50), in two 



ORNAMENTAL BANTAMS 



79 



varieties — Golden and Silver; Rose-Comb Black Bantams and 
Rose-Comb White Bantams (see Fig. 51), which are counter- 
parts of the Hamburgs; Booted White Bantams; Light Brahma 
Bantams and Dark Brahma Bantams, which are miniatures of 
the regular Brahmas; Cochin Bantams (see Fig. 52) in four 
varieties — Buff, Partridge, White and Black; Polish Bantams in 
three varieties — Bearded White, Buff Laced, and Non-Bearded; 




1 



Fig. 52. — White Cochin Bantams. 



and the Japanese Bantams (see Fig. 53) in three colors — Black 
Tailed, White, and Black. 

Bantams are raised almost exclusively for pleasure, though 
they are sometimes used to hatch the eggs of Pheasants and other 
fowls, since as a rule Bantam hens are good sitters and mothers. 
Some of them are good layers, and for their size they lay un- 
usually large eggs. These, however, are not marketable as prime 
eggs, for they are too small. 



80 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Any of the Bantams will make delightful pets for children. 
With their cute and saucy ways they are a constant source of 
amusement. Where is there a small boy who has not sometime 
yearned for a pair of these little feathered friends? 

Silkies. — We could continue to enumerate other varieties of 
ornamental poultry, but most of them are so rare, that to devote 
space to them would serve no practical end. Silkies are fowls 
of small size, whose chief peculiarity consists of very soft, web- 




^yi! 



Fig- 53- — White Japanese Bantams. 



less feathers, which are exceedingly loose when in prime condition, 
and stand out from the body in all directions. They are purely 
ornamental birds. 

Frizzles are another grotesque member of the poultry family. 
The ends of their feathers curl backwards, giving them a frizzled 
look, hence the name. 

Long Tailed Yokohamas represent still another odd variety. 
See Fig. 24. They are Japanese birds, having very long tails, 



SICILIAN BUTTERCUPS 81 

sometimes attaining a length of fifteen or eighteen feet, and are 
quite beautiful in coloring. Occasionally specimens are ex- 
hibited in American poultry shows. 

Sicilian Buttercups have appeared in the poultry exhibits 
from time to time, but they never won any particular favor. 
See Fig. 20. They have an odd comb, resembling a cup. In 
Sicily, their native home, they were known as " Patera Opulentae," 
meaning sacred cup of riches, and were formerly used in religious 
sacrifices. 



CHAPTER VII 
A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 

Principles. — Fine feathers usually make fine birds, for the same 
reason that up-to-date business methods make satisfied custo- 
mers, than which there is no greater asset to the poultryman, be 
he conducting a large or small industry. Fine feathers indicate 
quality — careful breeding of known reliability, proper feeding 
and good care generally. Up-to-date business methods bear 
the hall-marks of ambition to please, of progressiveness, of pains- 
taking, workmanlike ability, of superiority and dependability. 
Business to-day demands certain conventionalities, and those 
who do not appreciate the fact, and who remain in the rut of a 
past generation, thinking that they can do things as their grand- 
fathers did, are sooner or later destined to become relegated to 
obscurity. 

Conducting a poultry farm is no different from any other 
enterprise in this respect; if the poultryman wants to make a 
success of his business, and derive other than laborer's wages 
from his investment, he must conduct his operations on what 
have come to be recognized as the standards of modern business. 
He must produce commodities which are in popular demand, not 
has beens; he must exercise good salesmanship, by using every 
means at hb command to get his commodity before the public; 
following which he must keep his products up to their representa- 
tion, and never tolerate a sag in quality; and above everything 
else he must give good value, and wherever possible — just a little 
bit more than the other fellow. Perhaps not in a reduction in 
price, for under-cutting is sometimes accompanied by retaliative 
measures; but in the excellence of the product, or the manner in 
which it is packed and distributed, in the service — the prompt- 

82 




bo 



83 



84 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



ness and courteous treatment accorded a customer; these are 
values, more or less intangible, no doubt, but nevertheless potent. 
Furthermore, the buying public is quick to appreciate them. 

Food Products. — Primarily, the poultry man should always 
bear in mind that he is producing food products, not coal or iron 
castings, consequently his wares have an esthetic appeal. There 
is much agitation these days over sanitary conditions in factories 
where food stuffs are made, and it is right that there should be; 
the slogan is cleanliness to a most exacting degree. We do not 




{Courtesy Monmouth Poultry Farm) 
Fig- 55- — A centralized plant. 



look for purity in articles of food that are made in dirt-infested, 
antiquated factory buildings, where the workers must toil amid 
sordid conditions, — filth, improper ventilation and unhealthful 
environments generally. Pure food commissions are empowered 
to regulate these affairs. If it is important that milk should be 
produced and sold under certain restrictions, it is also impor- 
tant that poultry and eggs should be produced likewise. At 
least the commercial aspects are the same. 

The buildings on a poultry farm, their yards and all the acces- 
sories should be built with the idea of maintaining them in a 



ESSENTIALS OF GOOD BUSINESS 



85 



strictly sanitary condition. Dirt, disorder and dereliction must 
not be tolerated. By this it is not necessary to erect unduly 
expensive buildings, nor to install elaborate equipment; for the 
margin of profit in the business will not warrant the expenditure 
of unnecessary capital. Besides, unnecessary capital brings no 
return on the investment. 




{Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 

Fig. 56. — There is no better spot for poultry than a grove of trees, providing 
the sun is able to shine on the house. 



Show Place. — Every poultryman should aim to make his farm 
a show place, where visitors can be allowed at regulated times, 
and where prospective customers can be shown the articles that 
are for sale, and note for themselves that what has been said about 
the articles is true. None of us like to buy "a pig in a poke," if 
we can help it. And do not think that a show place should con- 
sist of show in the sense of elegance, a mere spending of money. 



86 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Simply constructed buildings, in an orderly arrangement, neatly 
painted or white-washed, and having an air of practical utility, 
make the most impressive showing, provided they are clean and 
stocked with vigorous, healthy-looking poultry. By all means 
avoid an accumulation of junk or rubbish lying about the 
premises; it is bad for the fowls, and a constant eyesore. Have 
a place for everything, and everything kept in its place. The 
appointments necessary for the convenience of the fowls and their 
caretaker are really very simple, and most of them can be bought 
for a small outlay, or they can be made at home. 

Home made devices should not necessarily mean makeshifts — ■ 
odds and ends, broken china, discarded kitchen utensils, old 
buckets, rusty pans and other receptacles that have long since 
passed their age of usefulness, and which only serve to clutter up 
the yards and houses. Visitors and customers observe these 
things, and their opinions are formed accordingly. Nothing 
is more enbarrassing than to have to make excuses for the ap- 
pearances of everything; and besides excuses are futile. All 
the excuses in the world fail to make a reason that will justify 
shiftlessness; it is inexcusable. 

Visitors. — Notwithstanding the poultryman's time is very 
much occupied by routine work, and that visitors are sometimes 
rather troublesome to entertain, also that their presence is dis- 
turbing to the birds unless precautions are taken, experience 
has proved that one of the best selling methods is to get the pub- 
lic's interest in your work. Every family living in the commu- 
nity, or who might be visiting the community, is a prospective 
customer if ^heir interest is aroused, and they are assured of a 
courteous reception when they seek information. If you have 
something to sell, you must let it be known, following which 
you must be perfectly willing to exhibit your goods. 

Sign. — The first step toward publicity is to erect a neat sign, 
setting forth the name of the farm or that of the owner, which- 
ever is used to trade under, together with any other advice, 
clearly and concisely worded, such as the names of the breeds 
raised, and whether hatching eggs, breeding stock, day-old- 



ADVANTAGES OF A SIGN 



87 



chicks, market eggs or table poultry are for sale. If you wish to 
allow visitors, or have a particular place for customers to call, 
mention the facts or directions. If necessary state that visitors 
will be welcomed on certain days or between certain hours. 
Place the sign in a conspicuous position, preferably at the entrance 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig- 57- — Box-packed poultry, well-graded and ready for shipment. 



to the grounds, and endeavor to make it as attractive as possible, 
yet in harmony with its surrounding. 

If there is a wind-mill tower on the premises, and your business 
warrants the display, have your name neatly lettered on the 
rudder, or on the water tank, or on the roof of the barn, so that 
it can be seen for long distances, especially if it can be seen from 
a railroad or trolley line over which many people travel. 

If there is likelihood of the fowls being disturbed by the in- 



88 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

trusion of strangers, a question that is largely determined by the 
arrangement of the yards and buildings, there is no harm in 
putting up a sign to the effect: Visitors are invited to inspect 




THE MAN AND THE LAMP 



{Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 
Fig. 58. — Elements which make for success in poultry raising. 



the farm, but they are requested not to enter the buildings, or 
to frighten the fowls in any way. 

Printed Matter. — Another factor that plays an important part 
in the farm's publicity, and one that inspires confidence in its 



SHIPPING TAGS, STATIONERY, LABELS 89 

establishment, is the use of a neatly printed letter-head and bill- 
head in all business transactions. On farms of any size there is 
quite a little correspondence, inquiries are received, asking for 
prices on stock, eggs and so on, and if these are answered in a 
poor handwriting on scraps of paper, or if bills are rendered in 
some obscure, back-woods style, they are sure to create a very 
unfavorable impression. It is unfortunate, perhaps, but we are 
frequently judged by these apparently trivial details. 

Mail. — It should be a hard and fast rule, that all mail be 
answered promptly, preferably the same day it is received, and 
it should be answered courteously and fully, paying the same at- 
tention to a small order as to a large one. The person who writes 
for a setting of eggs to-day, or this season, may be in the market 
for a thousand eggs next month or next year. If bills are paid, 
or money is received on deposit, it must be acknowledged, with 
thanks, immediately. Indifference to these matters has a far- 
reaching effect. Business men are accustomed to extending and 
receiving certain formalities, and they expect them; it is a part 
of our great commercialism. 

Printing is so cheap these days, there is seldom any excuse for 
a farm being without printed stationery, which should include a 
letter-head, bill-head, envelopes, shipping tags and labels, if such 
are used in place of tags, as, for example, on egg cases. There is 
usually a printer in every town of any size, who will get up some 
ideas at a small cost; or, stationery may be obtained through 
mail order houses, such as the publishers of agricultural journals 
and weekly papers. Aim to have the printing as attractive as 
possible, on fairly good quality paper, and to include the name of 
the farm, its location, its products, any of its most salient fea- 
tures, and wherever possible a trade-mark. Do not use anti- 
quated wood cuts, meaningless ornaments, poor half-tone re- 
productions of the owner, or his house, or one of the hackneyed, 
conventional electrotypes of a trio of fowls; people are not in- 
terested in such things, because they convey absolutely no mark 
of originality or distinction. 

Trade-Mark. — Try to think up an original idea for a trade- 



90 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



mark or brand, and incorporate with it something that is sig- 
nificant, an idea that means something besides printers' ink; 
either the name, the farm's specialty, or its policy will do nicely. 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't -Agriculture) 
Fig- 59-— Broiling chickens, packed breast up, twelve to the box. 



Thereafter, this trade-mark should be embodied in all of the sta- 
tionery, shipping tags, labels and any advertising literature or 
price lists that may be gotten out from time to time. If neces- 



LABELS ON EGG CASES 91 

sary have the design copyrighted or registered, or later, some un- 
scrupulous fellow may try to take advantage of an established 
publicity. 

Reputation. — At first a trade-mark has very little significance, 
but as soon as a farm gains a reputation for straightforward deal- 
ings and a uniform quality in its products, its trade will look for 
some means of identification, and will insist upon having the 
goods of known reliability, even if it has to pay more for them. 
A well-known duck breeder, who makes a specialty of market 
ducks of prime quality, inserts a neatly printed tin tag in the 
web of the foot of each duck. Patrons of high-priced hotels and 
cafes where these ducks are served, have come to recognize that 
this tag, which is not unlike the tin tags inserted in plug tobacco, 
stands for quality, and the proprietors of these places, realizing 
the importance of the name, see to it that the tag is left in the foot 
when the duck is cooked and served. 

The egg case is another advertising medium that should not 
be overlooked. If gift crates are used, those of light material 
that are not to be returned to the shipper, the poultryman should 
have a stencil made, giving the farm's name and address, and 
apply it to each side of the crate before it is packed. Another 
method is to paste an attractive label or sticker on the ends of 
the crates, similar to those seen on orange crates. They are not 
expensive to have printed, and while they require a little trouble 
gluing them on, the benefits to be derived therefrom will more 
than compensate for the time expended. It is a job that can be 
done on rainy days or at odd moments, and need not intrude 
itself upon routine work. 

If returnable crates are employed, and these are desirable for 
certain classes of trade, they should be painted a serviceable 
color, and neatly lettered with the farm's name and address. 
In addition to this, it may be desirable to include the farm's 
specialty, such as: Day-Old Sterile White Eggs, or Selected 
Farm Eggs. 

The proprietors of many high class stores like to offer their 
eggs for sale in the original carriers, and will take particular 



92 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



pains to give them a conspicuous display, especially when they 
can afford to recommend goods from a reliable poultry farm. It 
is therefore a good plan to have the farm's name lettered on the 
inside of the lid, so that when it is thrown back the lettering will 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 60. — Roasting chickens, side-packed, six to the box. 



attract attention. The interior of the crate must be kept 
scrupulously clean, of course, and to aid in this it is well to shellac 
or varnish the mside of the crate when it is new. A hard oil 
finish on the outside of the crate is also effective. 



PACKAGES 



93 



Packages. — Many poultrymen are rather careless about the 
appearance of their packages, and pay no attention to them, any 
more than to see that they are securely packed. This is an error 
in judgment. Not only will the crates come under the observa- 
tion of the consignee and his customers, if shipped to a wholesale 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Fig. 61. — Dressed poultry packed in cartons. 



firm, but they will also be noted by many persons at the express 
depots and while in transit. This fact is especially true of crates 
of live fowls; there seems to be a sort of fascination about them 
for most people, who will go out of their way sometimes to in- 
spect the tags, and note the name of the sender and to whom 
they are being shipped. 



94 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Publicity. — Summing up the entire situation, it behooves the 
poultryman to take advantage of every means at his command 
to gain publicity for his plant and its products; he should leave 
no stone unturned to keep in the limelight, and in so doing he 
should be careful to conduct his affairs in a dignified, reputable, 
business-like manner — paying the same strict attention to de- 
tails that are found among progressive merchants generally. 



CHAPTER VIII 
KEEPING RECORDS 

Know Where You Stand. — To have an accurate understanding 
of one's position or progress in any line of work it is essential 
to keep accounts. Conducting a poultry farm is no different 
from any other enterprise in this respect. To raise chickens 
intelligently and profitably, one must consider, precisely, such 
factors as labor, feed, the number of eggs laid by different flocks, 
cost of equipment, housing and so on. Haphazard, hit-or-miss, 
guess-work methods belong to the time when chickens were 
raised as a by-product of the farm, merely to supply the home 
table with a few tempting viands. Such methods are inexcus- 
able to-day; they are shiftless. 

Imagine the confusion that would exist if the general run of 
business houses attempted to conduct their affairs without some 
system of book-keeping. It is hardly likely they would survive 
a week. Yet it is safe to say the general run of poultry raisers 
are very lax in this respect, many of them keeping no records 
whatever, not even a memorandum of their feed bills. They 
have no way of telling whether their hens are an asset or a lia- 
bility, or what it costs to produce a dozen eggs or a pound of 
meat. For all they know, it may be cheaper to buy poultry 
products at the store. 

Leaks.— Farms specializing in poultry products, progressive 
poultry men, must have a definite knowledge of the performance 
of their flocks, and what it costs to maintain that performance. 
Experienced breeders, those who helped to make poultry raising 
a billion dollar industry, and thus take front rank in the country's 
industrial activities, laid the foundation of their success on the 
leaks and shortcomings that were detected by some system of 

95 



96 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



records. Every day valuable information is brought to light 
by' the simple recording of a series of experiments; witness our 
agricultural experiment stations. 

Eliminate the drones, the nonproducers, and cull the unde- 
sirables and defectives, is the twentieth century farmer's slogan. 
Get rid of the boarders, either as a class or as individuals; in- 
stall breeds or stock of known reliability, those that are good 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 62. — Wagon load of live poultry unloading at a Western packing house. 



tenants. Except for resolutions of this kind the two-hundred- 
egg-hen would still be a myth; our flocks would never have 
progressed beyond the average of five dozen eggs per year. In 
fact, raising chickens could never have been made profitable, 
not even as a side line, except for consistent efforts of careful 
selection for many generations, which established a standard. 
Simple Records. — Unless detailed information is desired, it is 



SIMPLE SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS 



97 



not necessary to employ a highly involved system of book- 
keeping, but a simple record of costs and sales, the revenue 
derived from eggs, meat, and other sources, such as feathers and 
manure, and the cost of production, the feed, labor, repairs, 
improvements and general overhead expenses. A good record 
should be complete, concise and convenient; above all else it 




Fig. 63. — Suburbanite's poultry plant. 



should be accurate. The best way to insure accuracy is to 
keep the account up to date by a few minutes' work each day. 

To those who are unaccustomed to keeping accounts, it may 
seem rather difficult on first thought to keep tabs on a flock of 
hens. In reality it is quite easy. Some subjects are rather 
obscure at first, but if they are initiated, one by one, a simple 
general scheme will evolve, one that will be easy to follow there- 
after, and prove unquestionably helpful. 

Back lot poultrymen, those who raise but a few hens a year, 
7 



98 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



mostly for home consumption, need not concern themselves with 
but two columns of figures — a debit and a credit column.' The 
debit column, though it may be the least desirable, will be con- 
sidered first ; it is a necessary evil. 

Feed bills are the chief occupants of this column. Be sure 
to enter every item. The cost of the grain is seldom the only 
item. What about sacks, freight on the feed, hauling and so on? 
These are chargeable. Include all the labor required to care for 
the birds, for cleaning, feeding, watering and general supervision, 
whether it is performed by the owner of the flock, or assisted by 




{Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 64. — Fowls on range are stronger, more thrifty and less liable to contract 

disease. 



his wife and children. Perhaps only a few minutes are required 
several times a day; estimate their total in hours and multiply 
by a fair wage rate. 

Original Investment. — It is not fair to charge the cost of the 
poultry building and all equipment, also the value of the flock, 
to the expense account. They represent capital. Figure the 
original investment, and on this it is fair to charge an interest 
rate of six per cent per annum, which should be added to the debit 
column. Against the value of the buildings, fencing and equip- 
ment should be charged another six per cent for depreciation. 



KNOW YOUR BUSINESS 



99 



Repairs and any other incidental expenses are also charge- 
able. 

On the credit side of the ledger must be entered items covering 
the sale of any eggs or stock, the products consumed on the 
home table, and an allowance made for the value of the manure 
as a fertilizer, or perhaps feathers. As much should be charged 
for the eggs used in the home kitchen as would have to be paid 
for eggs of a similar grade in the retail store. 

Information. — Those engaged in the poultry business as a 




(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig. 65. — "A good hatch." Note the tray of empty egg shells on top of the 
incubator, and the leg bands on the chicks. 



specialty and who raise fowls on an extensive scale, will find it 
to their advantage to gather as much additional information 
about their flocks as possible. They should ascertain the laying 
capacity of each flock, and what it costs to feed each flock. 
These facts enable you to estimate the cost of producing a dozen 
eggs at different seasons of the year. If itemized records are 
kept of the feed consumed by different flocks and by broods of 
chicks, it is possible to figure out the cost of raising certain breeds 
to maturity, and of keeping different varieties for a year. 



100. COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Of what practical benefit is it to know these things? Simply 
this, the question constantly arises, which is the most profitable 
breed of chickens? Or, beginners will ask, which is the more 
profitable specialty — meat or eggs? 

It is impossible to furnish a reliable answer to these queries 
with a general statement. The fact of the matter is, there is no 
one best breed, and no one branch of poultry culture can be said 
to be the most profitable. There is no greater proof of this than 
the reports from the Egg Laying Contests for the past six years. 
Some breeds are more desirable for certain purposes. Even so, 
there is as much difference between different strains — different 
blood lines, of the same variety, as there is between totally different 
breeds. 

The only way to be sure of the best breed for a certain purpose, 

or the best strain of a certain breed, is 
to experiment with it and keep an ac- 
curate record of its behavior. Never 
take too much for granted in any line 



■aammm 



{Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) of WOrk, especially in the poultry in- 

Fig. 66. — Aluminum leg dustry. Not that there is any at- 
tends. Small one is for chicks tempt at willful misrepresentation, 
and for inserting in the web of . r 
the wing. but it does not necessarily follow 

that every one will succeed with cer- 
tain conditions because some have done so. Do your own think- 
ing; conduct your own investigations; establish your own rates 
and records. In no other way will it be possible to really know 
your business. 

Breeding Records. — To return to our subject, if one wishes to 
breed from none but the heaviest producers, or from specimens 
of a particular type,- records must be kept of the hatching and 
brooding. A single great performance really conveys nothing to 
the poultryman so far as breeding progress is concerned, unless 
it can be definitely located in the preceding generation and later, 
in the succeeding generation. It is the heavy layer with the 
faculty for producing heavy layers, or the fowl of superior type 
with the capacity to beget offspring of the same superior type, 



HATCHING AND BROODING RECORDS 



101 



that are sought. Such matings are proved by records established 
for several generations. 

In the breeding of other kinds of pedigreed livestock, such as 
horses, cows and dogs, permanent records are maintained by the 
officers of a society or association of breeders. In other words, 
the stock is registered; and an examination of the records of a 
certain society will disclose the ancestry of any animal of note. 
Because the poultryman 
must keep his own pedi- 
gree, it becomes none the 
less important. 

The trap nest and the 
numbered leg band are 
the only positive means 
of determining the exact 
laying ability of a hen, 
which hens lay the best 
shaped eggs, which the 
largest sized, which the 
strongest in point of fer- 
tility, which are the best 
winter layers, which pul- 
lets begin early and lay 
the greatest number of 
eggs in succession, the 
number of times they be- 
come broody, and many 
other facts of vital im- 
portance to the poultryman. But whether or not this informa- 
tion is considered of sufficient value to warrant the additional time, 
trouble and expense of operating the trap nest system is the de- 
batable question that must be determined by every poultryman 
for himself. 

The use of the trap nest is described in another chapter. 

Fertility. — A fair idea of the fertility and hatchability of the 
eggs, and the stamina and growth of the chicks may be ascer- 




(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
Fig. 67. — Making incision for wing band. 



102 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



tained by flocks, where the poultryman does not wish to trap nest 
his birds. Let us assume the breeding pens consist of units of 
from twenty to a hundred fowls, and that they have been mated 
with the view to some definite purpose. As the eggs are col- 
lected from these pens let the collector mark the number of the 
pen on the receptacle in which the eggs are gathered ; later, when 

the eggs are selected for 
incubation this number 
is marked on the egg shells 
andthey are placed in the 
incubator or under hens. 
A card is made out for 
each hatching, and on it 
is marked the date the 
eggs are set. When the 
eggs are tested for fertil- 
ity a report is made on 
the card of the number of 
clear eggs removed, and 
to what pen numbers 
they belong. The same 
idea is carried out at 
hatching . time — the un- 
hatched eggs are counted 
and credited to their re- 
spective pens. 

Marking Chicks. — This 
data will keep a pretty 
good line on the fertility 
of the different pens, and 
the hatchability of their eggs. If the operator wishes to go further, 
and follow the progress of the chicks in the brooder, he can mark 
them when they are removed from the incubator, by leg bands, such 
as are used for pigeons. See Fig. 65. In keeping track of the eggs 
in the incubator they are given ordinary treatment up to the eigh- 
teenth day, or when the eggs are turned for last time. Then, by 




(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

Fig. 68. — Wing band in place on a mature 
bird. 



TOE MARKING 103 

means of wire baskets, pedigree trays, or mosquito-netting sacks, 
the eggs are segregated according to the numbers on their shells, 
and when the hatch is completed these numbers are designated 
on the leg bands placed on the chicks. 

This method permits the breeder to follow the progress of the 
chicks from different pens, and to note the results of his selection 
for given matings. It also keeps a check on the mortality and 
on early development. When the chick is five or six weeks old, 



'• A 


A 


* A 


A 


* A 


A 


- A 


A 


* A 


A 


- A 


A 


* A 


A 


* A 


A 


5. A 


A 


/3 A 


A 


« A 


A 


- A 


A 


-A 


A 


-A 


A 


a A 

Fig. 69. — Sixteen 1 


A 

different method 


* A A 

5 of marking the toes of chicks. 



and has outgrown the size of the first leg band, it must be removed 
and a larger one substituted, or the original band may be secured 
to the web of the wing, where it will remain throughout life. 

Wing Bands. — Attaching the band to the web of the wing is 
accomplished without serious discomfort to the bird. See Fig. 
67. Select a spot free from blood vessels of any size, pierce it 
with the point of a sharp knife and adjust the band. 

Toe Marking. — The advantages of having the fowls marked are 
numerous; it is always possible to tell the bird's age, and if the 



104 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

records are properly kept there will be no likelihood of inbreed- 
ing. Another method of marking the chicks is to punch a small 
hole in the web of the foot. Special punches may be purchased 
for this purpose. The chicks should be marked the day they are 
hatched, as the web is then soft, does not bleed so much as later, 
consequently there is little risk of the other chicks pecking the 
toes, as they would do when older. By different combinations 
there are sixteen markings possible, and a chart should be kept 
illustrating the marks. See Fig. 69. In my experience leg- 
banding is better than toe-punching. 

Feed Records. — In keeping a record of the amount of feed con- 
sumed by the different flocks it is not necessary to go to the 
trouble of weighing the feed every day. To do so might prove 
very tedious. A fowl's appetite is never the same; it varies 
from one year's end to the other, much the same as the prices of 
grain and other commodities fluctuate. During a period of 
heavy laying hens eat more than at other times; when they are 
molting or sitting they eat very little; in cold weather they con- 
sume more grain than in warm weather, providing their egg 
yield is the same; and on a bright sun-shiny day in winter they 
will eat more than on a dull, stormy day. Experienced poultry- 
men seldom feed a prescribed amount of grain to each flock every 
day; they cater to the flock's appetite and general conditions. 
It is the only intelligent way to feed. 

Except for these variations in the quantities of the feed and 
in the prices of the feed, it would be a comparatively simple task 
to figure the cost of the feed for a given pen. 

On most farms it is customary to feed the layers a certain 
amount of scratch grains in the morning, just enough to keep 
them at work in the litter, and all they will clean up in the late 
afternoon. At the same time a dry mash is kept before .the flock 
all day, together with oyster shells, grit, charcoal and beef scrap, 
unless the last two of these articles are included in the mash. 
Naturally, the quantities vary considerably. Furthermore, the 
numerous kinds of feed are purchased at varying intervals, in 



■'■•/'■ 







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105 



106 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 




different quantities, and at such times as they may be bought 
advantageously. 

Obtain a Rate. — The only simple way to surmount these 
irregularities is to reduce them to a unit basis or rate — the cost 
of a pound or quart for a given period, as, for example, the cost 
of a pound of dry mash for the month of October is $0.0195, or 
the cost of a quart of scratch grains for November is $0.0198. 
If large quantities are handled the unit may be raised to a hun- 
dred pounds or a hun- 
dred quarts. 

A scheme of this kind 
is in use on a farm of 
my acquaintance, and it 
works out very nicely. 
Every consignment of 
feed received is appor- 
tioned to dry mash, 
scratch grains, chick feed 
or whichever way the 
meals and grains are to 
be used, in two totals, 
weight and price. At 
the end of each month the total costs are added, and divided by 
the sum of the total weights, and the quotients are the rates per 
pound for each classification for that particular month. 

The rates are then applied to the quantities consumed by the 
various flocks, whose records are kept daily in each house or pen, 
then totaled for the month. 

The manner of keeping the records of the feed consumed is 
rather unique. A card or slate is fastened near the door of each 
pen, and as the attendant goes about distributing the, feed, an 
entry is made of the quantity of each kind of feed, dry mash, 
scratch grains, shells and so on. Large hoppers are employed 
for the storage of dry mash, some of them having a capacity of 
two and three hundred pounds, hence there may be only five or 
six entries for mash in a month. Similar devices are installed 



(Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 

Fig. 71. — Outdoor feed hopper for growing 
stock. 



TELL-TALES 



107 



for shells and grit, which are replenished on an average of once 
a month. 

Buckets of known uniform capacity are used for distributing 
the feed and other supplies, which obviates the necessity for 
weighing and feeding. Let us say, a certain-sized bucket con- 
tains forty pounds of scratch grains: If the feeder throws half 
of it to one pen and a quarter to another, and then four buckets 




Fig. 72. — Substantial set of poultry buildings. 



to a larger house, he enters twenty, ten and a hundred and sixty 
pounds respectively on each slate. 

The same bucket will probably hold about thirty pounds of 
dry mash, and about eighty pounds of grit or shells. At the end 
of the month all slates are brought to the office, totaled, entered 
in a book and wiped clean for the next month. 

Tell-Tales. — If the record of a particular house indicates a 
falling off in feed along with a decrease in eggs, or if the egg record 



108 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

does not compare favorably with the cost of the feed, it proves 
substantially that something is wrong, or that a certain flock 
is not up to standard. An inquiry is then held and the reasons 
ascertained. The system also acts as a check on the feed; since 
the total amount of feed placed before the fowls must compare 
with the amount of feed purchased. This is a feature not to be 
ignored; we have known feed to be wasted, sold short weight 
and stolen. The question of keeping records on a poultry farm 
is in harmony with this age of time clocks and cash registers. 



CHAPTER IX 
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 

The question often arises, which is the best system of poultry 
management? 

Many persons have been led to believe that such systems exist, 
even to the extent of being patented, and for the use of which it 
is necessary to pay certain sums of money. The truth is, that 
while hundreds of books and pamphlets have been published on 
this subject, purporting to be secret methods and systems, many 
of which contain extravagant claims, there is no such thing as a 
hard and fast system of poultry culture. 

On the contrary, the only principle which might be said to con- 
stitute a system, and upon which all of the so-called systems and 
secret methods agree, is — that the management or care shall be 
systematically done. Beyond this every poultryman must 
evolve his own individual methods and practices, those which 
are best suited to a given purpose in a given locality. It is im- 
portant that one should have a definite purpose, for in that way 
only is it possible to determine the most suitable location, the 
best type of housing, the most profitable breeds, and so on. 

Location. — While fowls can be kept almost anywhere and 
everywhere, they do best in congenial locations. Soil conditions 
and the arrangement and construction of buildings have much 
to do with their health and profit. We must also consider the 
means and inclinations of their, owner. 

Briefly, the ideal location may be summarized as follows: 
Choose a soil which is light enough to provide good natural 
drainage, yet heavy enough to grow grass, and a site having a 
south or southeast exposure, protected from prevailing high 
winds. 

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LOCATION OF HOUSES 



111 



A dry porous soil, such as sandy or gravelly loam, is preferable 
to a heavy clay soil, because the former is easily kept sanitary. 
A purely sandy soil, however, is not desirable, because it will not 
support the plant and insect life which poultry should have. If 
it is impracticable to select a naturally dry soil, it should be made 
sanitary by underdrainage. 

Build the houses in the lee of a wind-break if possible, and on an 
elevation having a natural drainage away from the buildings. 
When a direct southern exposure is not obtainable, aim to have 




{Courtesy Monmouth Poultry Farm) 
Fig. 74. — A site like this means well-drained, sanitary yards. 



the buildings face the southeast rather than southwest, for fowls 
seem to enjoy morning to afternoon sun, and other things being 
equal the quarters should be warmer. 

In the manner of housing fowls there are two general ideas — 
the colony plan, which consists in placing small houses for small 
flocks far enough apart so that they will have an abundance of 
range, and with little chance of intermingling, and the more in- 
tensive plan of keeping the birds in long continuous laying houses. 
See Fig. 76. This latter arrangement of housing may consist 



112 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



of a series of separate pens under one roof, connected by an alley- 
way at the rear, or by doors or gates between the pens, or it may 
be one long house capable of accommodating units of from 500 
to 1000 birds. 

The advantages and disadvantages of the two ideas are nu- 
merous. Birds on free range require less scrupulous attention to 
cleanliness, no expense for fencing, and they will pick up the 
greater part of their green and animal food. Moreover, should 
sickness break out there is less likelihood of its becoming an epi- 
demic. On the other hand, the colony plan involves considerably 




-15-0" 



{Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 75. — Diagram illustrating the angle of the sun's rays during December. 
Sunlight should be permitted to reach the rear of the building, where it is most 
needed. 



more labor in the performance of routine work, such as feeding 
and watering, cleaning and gathering eggs, than the continuous 
house plan, which is especially true in stormy weather. 

The cost of building houses on the colony plan is much higher 
per bird, not only because a number of smaller houses require so 
many additional end walls, but being smaller the allowance of 
floor area per bird in the colony house should be almost double 
that required in the long continuous house. 

The relative merits as to productiveness are debatable, although 
there is a tendency to accept the idea that small flocks produce 
the greater egg yield. To offset this, however, it costs more in 



IDEAL TYPE OF HOUSE 



113 



labor to produce a dozen eggs by the colony plan than by a more 
intensive arrangement. 

The ideal type of poultry house is not necessarily the most ex- 
pensive building. It should be serviceable above all things, fairly 
roomy, well ventilated and yet free from direct drafts, capable of 
being flooded with sunlight, and dry and sanitary at all times. 
It should be built wherever possible with the view to simplicity, 
economy and convenience. To spend large sums on it is almost 
as grave an error as to slight it, for money expended for unneces- 



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{Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 76. — Housing plans. Diagram on left indicates colony house system; 
dotted line shows the distance travelled to reach all the buildings. In the 
right-hand diagram the same number of pens are brought together in a con- 
tinuous house; note the amount of walking saved. 



sary purposes on a poultry farm is dead capital and brings no re- 
turn on the investment. 

It is impossible, of course, to meet all conditions or suit all 
tastes in one or two types of houses, but if one gains a familiarity 
with the fundamental principles of poultry house construction, 
it is then a simple matter to incorporate those principles into a 
type suitable to any tastes, conveniences, soils and climatic con- 
ditions. 

Warmth. — A warm house, or at least warm sleeping quarters, 
is one of the prime requisites for winter egg production ; yet arti- 



114 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



ficial heat is not to be recommended. In fact, it has been tried 
very thoroughly, and with unsatisfactory results. Birds so kept 
quickly lose their vitality, and sickness and other troubles de- 
velop. It is better to build the house substantially, and thus in- 
sure it against drafts and dampness, for these are the poultryman's 
greatest foes. 

Egg production is really the result of a secondary circulation, 
hence if the fowls require all their surplus energy and vitality 
to combat improper conditions and to keep warm, there is none 
left for egg production. 



Pen / Per, 



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(Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig- 77- — Types of pens, illustrating arrangement of roosts, partitions, alley- 
ways and scratching sheds. 



The size of a poultry house is largely influenced by the breed 
and number of birds kept in each flock. If the fowls are kept in 
small flocks, more floor space per bird is needed, and the reason 
is quite apparent. In the small flock, say twenty birds in a house 
io by 12 feet, each hen is confined to a very narrow area, although 
she has an allotment of six square feet; whereas in a large flock 
of 500 layers, housed in a building 16 by 100 feet, each bird would 
have but a trifle over three square feet of floor space, yet it would 
have the freedom of roaming and scratching over the entire area, 
and would not be oppressed with the feeling of constraint. 

Ordinarily, the heavier breeds require about one-half again as 



SIZE AND PROPORTION 



115 



much floor space as the Leghorn and other Mediterranean classes; 
but the smaller breeds, being more active and more nervous, are 
more apt to become unduly excited and panicky when crowded 
in a small pen. It is difficult for the attendant to work in a small 
house or pen without getting the flock into a condition of unrest 
and excitability for fear of being cornered, and such is not con- 
ducive to egg production. 

The situation may be summarized about as follows: Allow 6 
to 7 square feet per bird for all classes, if the houses are small. 




Fig. 78. — Poultry house under construction by students at Purdue University. 



Provide 5 to 6 square feet per bird of the Plymouth Rock or 
Wyandotte type, in houses where the flocks are made up of large 
units. Allow 3 to 4 square feet per bird for Leghorns and similar 
classes, when they are kept in large flocks. This is the practice 
on many of the largest commercial farms. 

To obtain the greatest amount of floor space at the least cost, 
the building should be designed as wide as possible, yet not exceed 
a point where long timbers are required, for these are certain to 
be expensive. Sixteen feet is a good width for the shed roof type 
of house; the timbers required are stock lengths, therefore sold 



116 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



at regular rates; and the front wall need not be so high but that 
the sun will reach the rear wall, where it is most needed on account 
of the roosting compartments. 

There are three general types of roofs for poultry buildings — 
the single pitch or shed roof, the gable roof, or double pitch, 
having equal or unequal slopes; and the half-monitor style of 
house, which consists of a shed roof in the rear of the house, 
covering about two-thirds of the building, then from the front 
eaves a wall is built for perhaps a distance of three or four feet, 
consisting mainly of windows, and from which there extends 





{Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 79. — Types of roofs for poultry houses. A, shed roof; B, two-thirds span; 
C, gable; D, monitor; E, half monitor; F, hip roof. 



another plane or shed roof, covering the front third of the build- 
ing. See Fig. 79. Houses of this type can be erected wider than 
sixteen feet and not require exceptionally long timbers, and it is 
also practicable to have the sun's rays reach the rear of the in- 
terior without a high front wall. 

The single-pitch roof is the easiest to build, and is probably 
the most generally used on that account. It furnishes the highest 
front wall, and sheds all the rain water to the rear. 

All poultry buildings should be built as low as possible, not 
only to save material, but to conserve warmth in cold weather; 
yet they should be built with standing room in all sections where 



ROOF 



117 



the routine work is performed. If the rear wall is built of suffi- 
cient height for the attendant to perform his work without bump- 
ing his head, and the front wall is to be kept as low as practicable, 
the roof will necessarily have to be of comparatively low pitch. 
Since shingles do not wear well on roofs of low pitch, houses of 
the shed roof type are usually roofed with a good grade of ready- 
to-lay patent roofing. These roofings, providing they are of 
known reliability, have rendered satisfaction, and are to be 
recommended. They require few repairs, but an occasional 




(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 80.— Interior of continuous poultry house in course of construction. 
Note the framing for pen partitions, ceiling against the rear wall in way of the 
roosting compartments, and the dirt floor. The sills are laid on concrete walls. 



painting, and are very economical in the amount of labor in- 
volved in laying them. 

When to Build. — Whenever possible it is best to build during 
the spring or early summer, for the building then has time to dry 
out during the hot days. This is especially true of houses which 
are intended to have dirt floors, or those having cement floors 
and foundation walls. Much of the sickness attributed to damp- 
ness will be avoided in this way, also considerable trouble and 
annoyance caused by wet, mucky litter. 



118 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Kinds of Floors. — The floor may be of earth, wood or cement; 
location and soil conditions are the determining factors. See 
Fig. 81. It is highly important that the floor be dry, otherwise 
it will be impossible to keep the litter dry and sweet enough for 
the fowls to work in. Straw and similar materials absorb mois- 
ture very quickly, whereupon they give off foul odors and are 
very apt to contaminate the scratch grains thrown into them. 

Earth Floor. — There is no better floor for poultry than an earth 
one, providing it is practicable to keep it dry, and it is also the 
most economical. A light sandy loam is best. A dirt floor 
should be about a foot above the outside ground level, hence the 




(Cornell Experiment Station) 
Fig. 8 1. —Methods of constructing foundations and floors. 



-best method of construction for such a house is to erect a concrete 
wall for a foundation. This should be built deep enough to pre- 
vent heaving by frost action, and extend about a foot above 
ground, after which it is filled in with soil, preferably sand, before 
the balance of the structure is erected. 

A wooden sill is laid on the top of this wall, upon which the 
frame studding is built, with the weather boards or siding carried 
three or four inches down on the outside of the concrete. An ar- 
rangement of this kind promotes great durability, for there is no 
part of the frame structure in contact with dampness and there- 
fore likely to deteriorate. 



FOUNDATION AND FLOOR 119 

Board floors are usually short-lived unless a free circulation of 
air is allowed under them, in which case it is well to build the 
house on piers two feet from the ground, or on a wall having ade- 
quate openings for ventilation The piers should be built of 
concrete, stone or brick for permanence. If posts are used, they 
should be charred or treated with a wood-preserving compound 
to prolong their life. 

Another objection to the wood floor which is built close to the 
ground, it offers a refuge to rats and mice and, perhaps, other 
animals. These pests are likely to occur on any farm, and if 
means are not provided to combat them, they will rapidly be- 
come a serious nuisance. 

Cement floors are the only absolutely vermin-proof ones; they 
are easily cleaned and durable, but apt to be cold and hard on the 
fowls' feet, unless covered with a thick layer of sand and litter. 
In constructing a cement floor the ground should be excavated 
for a depth of eight or ten inches, and filled in with broken stones 
or cinders to make a good foundation, which also acts as a sort 
of French drain and keeps the floOr dry. The concrete slab 
should be about two or three inches thick, poured over the broken 
stones or cinders after they are well tamped to a solid bed, and 
mixed in the proportion of I part Portland cement, 2>^ parts 
crushed stone or cinders, and 5 parts clean sharp sand. It is 
advisable to pitch the floor to a drain, which will greatly facilitate 
house cleaning. 

Floor Joists. — If the floor is of wood, built upon piers, the sills 
should be of fairly heavy timbers, running the long way of the 
house, which support the floor joists; these latter of 2 by 8, or 2 
by 10 material, and spaced about 20 inches on centers. If a 
single floor is to be installed, it should consist of a good grade of 
matched flooring; otherwise, if a double floor is contemplated, 
the rough flooring may be of 1 by 12 inch sheathing boards, laid 
diagonally across the joists, and over-laid lengthwise of the house 
with 1 by 3 inch matched flooring. The finished floor should 
be blind nailed, so that no nail heads project to hamper the use 
of a shovel or scraper in cleaning. Where necessary a layer of 




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122 



WALL CONSTRUCTION 



123 



felt building paper may be inserted between the two floors, which 
will add greatly to the warmth of the building. 

The framework is constructed mainly from 2 by 4 inch lumber, 
as are the rafters of buildings less than fourteen feet in width. 
The walls may consist of one thickness of matched boards covered 
with 1 -ply smooth-surfaced patent roofing, similar to the roof 
covering, novelty siding, weather boards, or rough sheathing 
shingled. Or, as is the custom in extremely cold climates, the 
walls may be made double, with a dead air space between, or 




Fig. 85. — End view of model hen house, as shown in Fig. 82. 



filled in with straw, hay or shavings for insulating purposes. 
These precautions, however, are not necessary unless the temper- 
ature goes below zero for long periods at a time. 

Another practice is to ceil the inside edge of the studding in 
way of the roosting compartments, and also the under side of the 
rafters. This makes a very neat interior, and helps to carry off 
any foul odors from the perches. Some poultrymen advocate the 
use of felt or tar paper on the inside of laying houses, lining the walls 
with it ; but in the writer's experience this is very unsatisfactory. 



124 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



It affords a breeding ground for lice and mites, and it cannot be 
cleaned. Then, too, it is inflammable. 

Openings. — The best arrangement is to have all the openings 
in the house on one side — the front wall — so that by keeping the 
other three sides tightly closed, drafts are prevented. 

Too much glass in a poultry house makes it cold in winter and 
hot in summer. In recent years curtain frames have taken the 




(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 86. — Framing for a continuous poultry house. Note the concrete walls; 
building is intended to have a dirt floor. 



place of glass windows to a great extent. In fact, many farms 
use curtain frames exclusively, although this practice makes for 
a dark interior, when on very stormy days it becomes necessary 
to close the curtains. The semi-open front house should consist 
of one-third board partition for its front wall, commencing at the 
floor line, one-third curtain frame openings, and one-third win- 
dows and ventilators. See Fig. 84. 

Curtain Frames. — A medium-weight, unbleached muslin is 



WINDOWS AND CURTAIN FRAMES 



125 



the proper material for the curtains, not heavy duck; the idea 
being that they should be porous and permit a circulation of 
fresh air without direct drafts. The frames may be hinged at the 
top and made to swing inward or outward, or they may be made 
portable and held in place by wooden buttons, operated from the 
outside. Inasmuch as they are in use for only about four months 
in the year, and then only at night or at such times when there is 
a severe storm from the south, it is best to make the frames 
portable, and to store them elsewhere when not needed. 

The position of the glass windows in the upper section of the 



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{.Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 87. — Methods of arranging colony houses and yards to save unnecessary 

steps. 



front wall should allow the maximum amount of sunlight to enter 
the building. They may be made portable, similar to the cur- 
tains, and stored elsewhere when not in use, or they can be opened 
by sliding to one side, or by swinging outward, which also serves 
the purpose of shedding driving rains from the south. 

Doors. — A small opening should be cut in the front wall as a 
means of egress for the birds, and fitted with a door. The main 
entrance door should be located at the end of the building, and 
be of generous proportions. There is no economy, only incon- 
venience, in a small entrance door. It should be large enough 



126 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

to permit the passage of a wheelbarrow or push-cart for cleaning, 
replenishing the litter and other routine work. In houses fifty 
feet in length and longer it will be found advisable to have a door 
at each end of the building. With this convenience a great many 
unnecessary steps may be avoided. 

Yard Space. — Chickens do not require unlimited range to give 
results, providing the deficiencies of a small enclosure are met 
by supplying them with an abundance of green food, animal food, 
and so on from other sources. Yet it is a bad plan to attempt to 
keep a large flock in a very small yard, unless considerable labor 
is expended in spading or plowing up the soil at frequent in- 
tervals. 

The earth in a yard crowded with fowls, especially if the soil 
is heavy, will become contaminated by their droppings, which is 
particularly objectionable in wet weather. It is therefore best 
to have double yards, one on either side of the house, or if this 
is not practicable, have them arranged side by side; so that when 
the flock is occupying one yard, the other may be sown to clover, 
rye, rape, or other green crop, and given time to make a start. 
This cultivation not only sweetens the soil, but it will provide a 
large portion of the necessary green food. 

Permanent Pasture. — If the yards are intended to be kept in 
permanent sod and furnish all of the green food, it will be ad- 
visable to allow at least ioo square feet per fowl, otherwise the 
birds will destroy the entire growth. If yards are intended for 
exercise only, and the greens are supplied from other sources, 
about 25 square feet per bird is sufficient. 

In any event, it is well to remember that the nearer square a 
yard is made the less it costs to fence a given area and the flock 
is more easily confined. Obviously, the small yard requires a 
higher fence than the large one, although the question of height 
is largely determined by the breed one keeps. The meat breeds, 
such as the Brahmas, may be confined within a 3- to 4-foot fence, 
general-purpose fowls within a 4- to 5-foot fence, and the egg 
breeds within a 6- to 7-foot fence. 

Erecting wire netting is sometimes attended by difficulties, 



ERECTING WIRE NETTING 



127 



which are generally due to lack of experience with this com- 
modity, and not to the netting itself. It is contrary material 
to. work, yet if a few principles are followed, the task may be 
made comparatively simple, and one that can be done single- 
handed. 

In purchasing poultry netting, even the best grades, it some- 
times happens that one selvage is slightly longer than the other, 
which will be responsible for trouble in hanging it, unless pre- 
cautionary measures are taken. To ascertain if such is the case, 




Fig. 88. — Wire-covered yards for cross-breeding experiments at the Kansas 
Agricultural Station. 



unroll the netting on a level stretch of ground, and if instead of 
lying in a straight line, the netting describes a slight curve, it 
is because one edge or selvage is longer than the other, perhaps 
but a few inches, which will not interfere with its efficiency, if 
the defect is borne in mind. 

Netting having uneven edges should always be hung with the 
shortest selvage — the selvage on the inside of the curve — at 
the top. Otherwise, if the longest selvage — the one on the out- 
side of the curve — is placed at the top, the upper section of the 



128 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

netting, after it is hung, will sag between the posts in spite of 
every effort to remedy it. 

There is one exception to this rule, which will explain the prin- 
ciple of it: If a fence is to be erected on ground which is rolling, 
and the contour of the ground is such that the highest ground is 
in the center of the curve, grading away uniformly on both sides, 
it is quite likely that this curve will conform to the curve in the 
netting, in which case the wire may be hung with the longest 
edge uppermost. 

Top Rails. — A poultry yard should never be constructed with 
a rail at the top, unless the top is to be covered with netting also, 
or unless the fence is to be built very high for a particular breed. 
To build rails only invites the birds to fly and alight on them. 
Fowls are not so apt to attempt to fly over plain wire, though now 
and again the more venturesome members of a flock will try to 
elude the mysterious barrier by climbing up and over it. 

If a rail is necessary at the top of a fence, as over gateways, 
it is well to erect a piece of netting over the top of the rail, which 
will baffle and discourage those who attempt an aerial escape. 

Base boards 12 inches wide, securely nailed to the fence posts, 
make the best bottom for a poultry fence, and assist greatly in 
stretching the netting, but they are also expensive if large areas 
are to be inclosed. They are not absolutely essential; in fact, 
equally good results can be obtained without them, for which a 
method is herewith described. 

The fence posts should be well planted in the ground, from 10 
to 12 feet apart, and braced at the corners, or in way of gates, to 
take the strain of stretching the wire. Then, commencing at a 
corner, unroll the bale of netting on the ground for its entire 
length, ascertain if it is straight, and decide which is the best 
edge for the top. , . 

Start to hang the netting by the top selvage at the proper 
height from the ground, driving one staple — no more — in each 
post, until the entire length is hung, all the while stretching the 
selvage away from the starting point. Be careful not to walk on 
the netting unnecessarily, or to handle it in such a way that it 



HOW TO BUILD A FENCE 



129 



develops bulges or sagged places, and do not attempt to stretch 
the middle of the netting. To do so will only result in a dis- 
torted sagged section which can never be straightened without 




Fig. 89. — Section of intensive broiler plant. 



130 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



great difficulty, if at all. It is also a bad plan to try and carry 
the netting around a corner without cutting it and making a 
new place of beginning, especially if the posts are round. 

Stapling. — When the netting is entirely hung by a single staple 
at each post, commence at the middle of the length of wire and 



EH3 ffl 



O 13 






laaybJJMtd^fejbJitum 



UU Hil Liii Uli ILH LLJJ ill CU HIT 



rrrl Htt 



"ET 



ZEE 



Front elevation. 



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0'0!OiOIO|00!0 



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Second floor — brooding compartment. 




First floor — developing pens. 



fe 



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T,cn:*<i 'Ho 



m* 



Cellar — incubator, oats and picking rooms. 
Fig. 90. — General arrangement of broiler plant, as shown in Fig. 89. 

secure the bottom selvage at each post at the ground line or an 
inch below, working each way from the center, and being careful 
not to stretch the netting beyond the distance allotted to it by 
each post interval. This method apportions the correct amount 
of netting over the entire area, whereupon it is then a simple 



TO HOLD NETTING AT BOTTOM 131 

matter to return and staple the wire to each post individually, 
stretching it slightly here and there as it is required. 

To hold the bottom of the netting in place and make it hug the 
ground closely, drive stakes at intervals of three or four feet- 
two stakes between the posts are generally sufficient — and secure 
the netting to them by a staple. Discarded wooden fence palings 
are splendid for this purpose, especially if they are tapered. 
Drive the largest end in the ground first, for a distance of about 
eighteen inches, whereupon they are less likely to heave upward 
by frost action. 

The life of these stakes will be prolonged if they are first 
dipped or soaked in a wood preservative, or else charred. 




Fig. 91. — Poultry house at Wisconsin College of Agriculture. 

By the use of stakes in this manner, especially in a light soil, 
it is possible to sink the netting six inches into the ground with- 
out difficulty, which in some respects is better than the wooden 
base boards, the bottoms of which soon rot away, or under which 
the fowls are able to dig their way to freedom. Moreover, with 
a little practice one will soon develop the skill and judgment of 
being able to drive the stakes with just enough tension on the 
netting to stretch it perfectly flat and tight. 

Chick Runs. — For inclosing yards intended for chicks, a course 
of inch mesh wire netting should be used at the bottom, twelve 
or eighteen inches high is sufficient, to which the coarser mesh 
netting is fastened by pieces of pliable wire bound around the 
two selvage edges. 



CHAPTER X 
INTERIOR ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS 

Convenience. — In the design and construction of poultry 
buildings not only the health and comfort of the fowls must be 
carefully considered, but the convenience of the caretaker should 
receive equally thoughtful attention. If not, and the arrange- 
ment of a building or plant is inconvenient, or its facilities are 
meager and of such a character that the performance of one's 
work is made unnecessarily tedious and laborious, it is quite 
likely to have a demoralizing effect upon the attendant's interest 
and ability. In consequence, some of the routine chores are 
apt to be overlooked or slighted, and in due time carelessness 
takes the place of thoroughness. 

The interior fittings of a poultry house — the arrangement of 
nests, perches, feed hoppers, watering devices and so forth — 
are no less important than the construction of the building itself. 

Cleanliness. — The paramount issue is cleanliness, or rather, 
let us say, facilities which will obtain cleanliness at the least pos- 
sible effort. It is a subject that admits of much argument and 
varying principles. Some methods achieve their end at too 
great a cost for labor; others simplify labor at the expense of 
sanitation. Various degrees of cleanliness are maintained either 
by an intricate or simple operation, and the same ease or effort 
may be expended upon the feeding, watering and egg collecting. 
If the methods are so antiquated or so involved as to require 
an unreasonable amount of labor, the efficiency of such a system 
is defective and should be corrected at once. 

Roosting Compartments. — The warmest part of the building, 
that which is freest from drafts, should be selected for the roost- 
ing compartments, which is usually against the rear wall. Each 

132 




(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
Fig. 92.— Interior of continuous laying house divided into pens Note the 
abundance of litter, swinging doors, and platform for water crock, shell box 
and mash hopper. 



133 



134 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



fowl should be allowed about ten inches linear perch room, and 
all the perches must be of the same height, or the birds will 
fight and struggle for the highest ones. Running the perches 
the long way of the house, that is, parallel with the rear wall, is 
generally the most economical, convenient arrangement, and 
their height from the floor is determined by the breed of poultry 
kept, and whether dropping-board platforms and nests are in- 
tended to be installed under the roosts. 

When dropping-boards are used, which are advisable, the roosts 




(Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig- 93- — Cross-section of laying house 20 feet deep, built on continuous plan, 

any length desired. 



should be located high enough to make their removal unneces- 
sary when cleaning the boards, and yet not so high but that the 
fowls can fly to them without difficulty. When fowls jump to a 
hard floor from a considerable height, especially to a concrete 
floor which is scantily covered with litter, they are in danger of 
bruising their feet, causing a very painful condition which later 
develops into bumblefoot. On this point the dirt floor is de- 
sirable; it is so resilient that cases of bumblefoot or corns are 
virtually unknown. 

Height of Boards. — As a general rule the dropping-boards for 



HEIGHT OF PERCHES 



135 



the Asiatic classes should not be over eighteen inches from the 
floor; for the general-purpose or American breeds, twenty-four 
inches; and for the Leghorn and other light weight Mediter- 
ranean classes, forty inches. The perches should be located 




(Cornell Experiment Station) 
Fig. 94.— Floor plan of 20-foot laying house, as shown in Fig. 93. View shows 
the width of a single pen, 20 feet wide. 

about twelve inches above the boards, and so constructed as to 
permit them to be readily removed and cleaned. 

Perches. — A 2- by 3-inch timber stood on edge, with the upper 
edge slightly rounded, makes an excellent perch. If these are 
supported at the ends by U-shaped wooden sockets, they may be 



136 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



made to span ten feet without need for an intervening support. 
Spans greater than this should be supported in the middle by a 
third cleat, a piece of I- by 3-inch stuff stood on edge, otherwise 
the perches will sway heavily and disturb the sense of security in 
the fowls. 

The end walls in houses sixteen feet long and less may be made 
to support the perches, dropping-boards and nests. In buildings 
of the continuous laying-house type it is customary to erect 




Fig. 95- — Floors of poultry buildings should be unobstructed. Note how 
this battery of trap nests is arranged, together with the perches and dropping- 
boards. 



transverse partitions, at intervals of twelve or sixteen feet, ex- 
tending five or six feet from the rear wall, which are designed to 
prevent currents of air from forming dangerous drafts in the 
roosting compartments, and which serve the additional purpose 
of a foundation for the perches and so forth. 

Construction of Boards. — The dropping-boards should be 
made fairly heavy and rigid, for it must be remembered that they 
will be made to carry considerable weight, not alone the weight 



ROOSTING COMPARTMENTS 



137 



of the fowls, but perhaps the nests as well. They should consist 
of matched boards — 8-inch roofers or 6-inch tongue-and-grooved 
fence boards are just the thing, and secured to their framework 
at right angles to the rear wall, never lengthwise of the house. 
The reason for this is apparent : there is a tendency for the boards 
to warp and curl, which would seriously interfere with scraping 




(Ground //'nf 



(Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 96. — Cross-section of laying house 16 feet deep, built on continuous plan, 

any length desired. 



the boards at cleaning time if the hoe or similar implement had 
to oppose these cracks and irregular places. 

Roosting Curtains. — When the roosting compartments are 
arranged as described above, it is a simple matter to fit the fronts 
of them with curtains, which may be lowered on extremely cold 
nights and hooked up to the ceiling in the daytime, a practice, 
however, which is not necessary except in very cold climates. 
Heavy unbleached muslin or a light duck tacked to a wooden 
batten or pole makes a good arrangement. 



138 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Still another point concerning the dropping-boards: they should 
be arranged with the view to scraping them into a push-cart or 
wheelbarrow, preferably the former. No part of the poultry- 
man's equipment is more generally useful and a greater labor 
saver than a well-built push-cart with fairly high wheels. It 
need not be an expensive one with springs. 



3 


1 








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owsc 

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— Concrete Wall — ■ 



Stone filled Trenc/z- 



(Cornell Experiment Station) 



Fig. 97. — Front elevation of laying house shown in Fig. 96. 
width of a single pen, 16 feet wide. 



View shows the 



Nests. — Next in importance to the roosting compartments is 
the arrangement of nests, of which there should be one to every 
four or five hens. Under natural conditions the hen seeks a se- 
cluded spot in which to lay, hence it behooves the poultry house 
designer to imitate the natural environment as much as practic- 
able. The nests should be situated in a more or less dark place, 
easily accessible, and in such a way that they do not obstruct 



ARRANGEMENT OF NESTS 139 

passageways or intrude upon the floor area. An unobstructed 
floor area is a vital consideration, and it should not be robbed 
in any way unless absolutely necessary. 

A good location for the nests is underneath the dropping- 
boards, suspended from them in light portable sections or bat- 
teries, which may be removed conveniently for cleaning. This 
practice, however, is not possible in houses intended for the 
heavier breeds, where the dropping-boards are built close to the 
floor, but it is admirably well suited to Leghorns.. 

The nests should be arranged so that the hens enter from the 
side toward the rear wall, and have a shelf upon which they may 
alight before entering a particular compartment. Each nest 
should be from 12 to 14 inches square and about 12 inches high, 
with solid partitions between them to prevent the hens from 
fighting. The side from which the fowls enter should have a 
front piece — a batten about three inches high — to keep the nest- 
ing material in its proper place; the side of the nests exposed to 
the interior of the house and from which the attendant is sup- 
posed to gather the eggs, consists of a hinged lid, arranged to 
operate with the greatest facility. 

Portable Nests. — The advantages of nests built in portable 
sections are numerous. It is necessary to clean them frequently 
in order to secure clean eggs at all times, and to replenish the 
nesting material. Moreover, they should be sprayed or scrubbed 
with a disinfectant at regular intervals to avoid a pestilence of 
lice and mites. The easiest way to perform this work is to re- 
move the nests outdoors, dump out their old contents, wash or 
spray them, place them in the sun to dry, refill with fresh straw, 
excelsior or other material and return them to their proper place. 

Built-in nests, those which are not portable, are very difficult 
and tedious to clean, and should not be tolerated. 

Cleanliness. — It is also important that the nests be protected 
against the fowls roosting in or on top of them, thereby soiling 
them unnecessarily. Soiled eggs are very bothersome, and even 
when thoroughly cleaned they are apt to be detected as washed 
eggs, and will be discounted accordingly. Furthermore, the 




.3 

a 



140 



BROODY HEN COOP 141 

nests should be built so that it is convenient for the caretaker 
to remove any setting hens. In the brooding season, especially 
on the commercial egg farm, it is necessary to go over all the nests 
every night and remove all hens showing any broody inclination. 
Therefore, unless the nests are suitably arranged, this detail in 
the day's routine will consume a great deal of time and is likely 
to prove a severe tax on one's patience. 

Broody Hen Coop. — On farms where incubation and brooding 
are entirely artificial, the hen is not made responsible for the rear- 
ing of next year's pullets, hence her maternal instincts should 





















Hi! a!! 


lull! 


1'eH 










ip*w 


-i '.'.- T 






-:t 



(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig- 99- — -The elevated walk in front of this house, under which the birds 
pass to gain entrance to the yards, enables the attendant to observe the dif- 
ferent pens without entering the building. 

never be allowed to develop. When a hen has laid a series or 
clutch of eggs, a rest period follows before another clutch de- 
velops, and at certain seasons of the year this dormant period is 
usually accompanied by broodiness. This condition must be 
broken up at once or there will be a heavy falling off in the egg 
yield. When a hen is allowed to remain on the nest she eats and 
drinks very little, draws heavily upon her internal storehouse for 
sustenance, and in a few days she becomes thin and emaciated. 
For economical reasons alone it is imperative that this self- 



142 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



imposed starvation be intercepted at the earliest possible moment. 
Moreover, a hen that is removed from the nest on the first or 
second day of her broody spell is much more easily discouraged 
than if she is allowed to remain longer, and thus have her in- 
clination become confirmed. 

There are many ways of breaking up broodiness, but common 
sense dictates that the proper method shall not subject the hen 
to cruelty or privation. To do so only further retards egg de- 





(Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 

Fig. ioo. — Poultry house with slatted openings for ventilation instead of 

curtains. 



velopment, and thus defeats the whole idea. A sitting hen should 
be induced to eat and drink freely and to exercise, for only in this 
way can her productive organs be stimulated. 

Slatted Bottom. — If only a few hens are to be considered, a 
good plan is to construct a packing box or coop with a slatted 
bottom, and to raise it about six inches from the floor. The 
hens' feet slip between the slats, the birds are unable to squat 
in a comfortable position, and the sensation of currents of air 
under them instead of eggs is disconcerting and harmlessly an- 



PROVISION FOR DUST BATH 143 

noying, so that in a few days they are disgusted with the whole 
maternal idea and are only too glad to rejoin their comrades in 
the laying pens. It is understood, of course, that food and water 
must be kept before the hens while they occupy their place of 
incarceration. In long laying houses, where a great number of 
sitting hens may have to be discouraged at one time, it is ad- 
visable to set aside a section of the roosting compartments at 
one end of the building for this special purpose, and to build it 
with a removable slatted floor, and with a wire netting front, so 
that the section may be converted into a brood coop as desired. 
At other times it may be used for an ordinary roosting space. 

To return to the subject of nests, if it is impracticable to erect 
the nests under the dropping-boards, as in the case of houses in- 
tended for the heavy breeds, they may be built in transverse 
tiers at the ends of the building, and in several sections in the 
interior of the house. But, as far as possible they should be 
built upon posts, with inclined runways leading to the nests, 
to obviate obstructing the floor space. In the monitor type of 
laying house they may be conveniently located along the line of 
columns supporting the roof, and where the front roof plane 
joins the main structure. 

Some poultrymen are opposed to locating the nests under the 
dropping-boards because of their proximity to the danger of 
lice and mites. This argument does not seem to be well taken, 
however, inasmuch as if the dropping-boards are infested with 
vermin to that extent, the conditions are as bad for sleeping as 
they are for laying and should be remedied at once. 

A dust bath is as essential to the well-being of poultry as is 
the soap and water variety to the human. Consequently, unless 
the poultry houses have dirt floors, which will answer the purpose 
nicely, provision must be made for a space devoted to dusting, 
preferably where there is sunlight, for the fowls seem to relish the 
combination. They like to dust themselves and then recline lux- 
uriously and bask in the sun. Any sort of a board partition about 
twelve inches high will answer the purpose, and about twenty- 
five square feet should be allowed for every hundred birds. 



CHAPTER XI 
POULTRY HOUSE APPLIANCES 

Interior Equipment. — In laying out the interior arrangement 
of a poultry house attention is first given to the location of the 
roosting compartments, perches and nests. See Fig. ioi. After 
these are installed the poultryman must turn his inventive 
ability to ideas for equipping the house with feeding and water- 
ing devices. 

These appliances should be arranged in the most convenient 
places left vacant after doors, windows, curtain frames, roosts, 
and so on have been located, and in such a way that they are not 
only easily accessible to the fowls, but equally handy for the 
caretaker to attend. 

Water fountains, shell boxes and mash hoppers require daily 
attention, consequently they should be simple in design, easy to 
clean and especially easy to replenish, otherwise a great deal of 
time will be needlessly consumed. They should be elevated from 
the floor as much as possible, not alone to avoid obstructing the 
floor area, but to prevent litter being scratched into them. This 
is especially true of the water fountains, hence it is sometimes best 
to locate these receptacles on a platform built about eighteen 
inches above the floor, and to which the fowls will jump when they 
want a drink. 

Poultry supply houses display such an array of equipment and 
of such a wide variety and completeness, the layman is. ofttimes 
amazed at the thought and consideration expended on the up- 
to-date hen. From a gapeworm extractor to a mammoth incu- 
bator or a coal-burning brooder stove, there is an endless assort- 
ment of appliances. Many of these devices can be bought more 
cheaply than one could make them at home; in fact, it would be 

144 



SUPPLYING DRINKING WATER 



145 



impossible to make some of them without special machinery and 
costly tools. There are some men, however, for whom the pleas- 
ure of making can never be equalled by the satisfaction of buy- 
ing a ready-made article, hence there is a splendid opportunity 
for them to exercise their ingenuity and skill as an amateur car- 
penter and mechanic. 

Water Supply. — If left to her own inclinations a hen would 
rather drink from a cow's hoof-print in preference to a fountain 



^ 




El 




fix 




H 



(Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. ioi. — Different arrangements for roosts and nests. A, Roosts and 
nests suspended from rafters, clear of rear wall; B, roosts and nests built on 
shelf attached to rear wall; C, a complicated arrangement; D, nests are too 
low for convenience; E, no provision for nests; F, no dropping-boards— 
manure falls to floor; G, wall arrangement for nests; H, open nest, which per- 
mits fowls to roost upon it. 



of clean, fresh water; yet that is no reason why she should be 
allowed to do so, any more than she should be permitted to eat 
putrid animal matter, which this perverse creature is sure to do 
if given the opportunity. Nature, it seems, has not seen fit to 
modify the fowl's instincts to conform to a civilization more in- 
tensive than was her original state; consequently, inasmuch as 
we have taken upon ourselves the responsibility of surrounding 
the hen with more or less artificial conditions, and induced her 
to be several times more productive than normal, it behooves us 



146 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



to go even further and be responsible for every detail that makes 
for her safety and well-being. 

An unlimited supply of pure drinking water must be kept be- 
fore the flocks at all times, and on large commercial egg farms 
this is a factor worthy of serious consideration. If there is water 
pressure on the premises, either from an overhead tank or from 
a municipal water supply, the problem is greatly simplified, for it 




Fig. 102. — Interior of well-designed laying house. Note how curtains are 
stowed against under side of rafters, and the partitions between the roosting 
compartments. 



is then only necessary to run pipe connections to the various build- 
ings and fit them with non-freezing hydrants. The water may be 
allowed to trickle continuously into a trough equipped with an 
overflow leading to the outside of the house, or fountains of gen- 
erous capacity may be filled at the hydrant and distributed 
throughout the building. 

Installing a water system does not necessarily require the ser- 



PIPE FITTINGS AND TOOLS 



147 



vices of a skilled plumber. On the contrary, any one who is 
handy with tools will find pipe-fitting a comparatively simple 
task. The most laborious part of the work is digging the trenches, 
for these should be excavated deep enough for the pipes to lie 
below frost line — thirty inches or thereabouts. A pipe vise, pipe 
cutter, set of dies for cutting threads, and a couple of Stillson 
wrenches are the essential tools. 

Pipe. — It is better to use galvanized pipe throughout the sys- 
tem, although black iron pipe will answer the purpose. In laying 



1 — r 



||*va.*» t'yjy' 



i — K 



g';S' 3tuOs soacp.d £'O m on cenrers 



; \U>xjqa/iy t>oarf''\ 



Concrete floor § 



1= 




(Kansas Experiment Station) 
Fig. 103. — Floor plan of a well-arranged poultry house. 



out the piping underground, it is well to make provision for ex- 
tending the system at some future time. That is — put in tee 
connections here and there, at points where you may want to 
run off pipe lines to new buildings. These tees can be shut off by 
plugs made for the purpose, and they will also act as clean-outs 
should any trouble occur. If these tee connections are not in- 
stalled, and later one wishes to tap into the main feed pipe, it 
will be very difficult to do so without taking up a great deal of the 
system. The reason for this is obvious: The pipe and fittings 
are all threaded right-handed, and unless unions are installed, 



148 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



it is then necessary to commence at the end of the system, work 
backward, and take down the entire system. 

Make a rough diagram of the proposed scheme first, measure 
the distances accurately, and, bearing in mind that pipe is pur- 
chased in sixteen- and twenty-foot lengths, ascertain the number 
and kinds of fittings required. One-inch pipe is plenty large 




Fig. 104. — Perches arranged in sections which hinge upward clear of the drop- 
ping-boards for cleaning. 



enough for the mains, reducing to ^4-inch pipe for the branch 
lines and connections. 

In addition to the enormous saving iri labor of watering the 
flocks, a water system having connections in all the principal 
houses is a very vital factor toward fire protection. A plant thus 
equipped is usually able to obtain fire insurance at a lower rate, 
hence this saving should be credited to the original outlay for the 
water system. 



WATER WITHOUT PRESSURE 



149 



If there is no municipal water supply available, no reservoir 
and no overhead tank on the premises, and an investment for 
same is not warranted, the following scheme may be substituted, 
and it is entirely practicable and satisfactory. The writer 
worked out the idea and has used it for several years. 

The most expensive part of a water system is the tower and 
overhead tank, both of which may be eliminated. Install a sound 
oak barrel of about 50-gallon capacity, preferably a charred 




(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
Fig. 105. — A raised shelf for the fountain insures clean drinking water. 



whiskey container (the charred lining serves to clear the water, 
absorb any impurities and keep it sweet), in each house and on 
the range where desired, and connect these with underground 
piping to an ordinary force-pump at the well. Erect a pump- 
jack, back-geared about seven to one, over the pump, and oper- 
ate this with a small gasoline engine — one horse power is ade- 
quate. 

The barrels are left with their heads in, and an inlet pipe fitted 
with a valve or spigot is inserted in the top of each, also an over- 



150 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

flow pipe leading to the outside of the building. Suppose, for 
example, there are ten of these barrels on a plant; at feeding and 
egg-collecting time in the evening the attendant first starts the 
engine, having the spigots or valves to all barrels open. One 
by one the barrels fill up and overflow, and as they do so the 
attendant shuts them off as he pursues his other work, until they 
are all filled, which will require about a half hour's pumping. 
The cost of the gasoline and lubricating oil is negligible, amount- 
ing to but a couple of cents ; whereas the saving in labor is enor- 
mous. Moreover, among farm hands there seems to be a deep- 
rooted antipathy against carrying water for livestock, and they 
will either openly rebel against the task, or purposely neglect to 
furnish the necessary quantity. At least, such has been the 
writer's experience and observations. 

Trough System. — In the above system the water is placed 
before the fowls in 15-foot galvanized sheet iron troughs, made 
from roof gutters, and supported by metal brackets designed for 
the purpose. The troughs are located against the front walls of 
the laying houses, about twelve inches above the floors, and 
covered over by a hinged board to prevent the birds fouling the 
water. Each trough is fitted with an overflow and a drain for 
cleaning, both of which lead to the outside of the building. The 
barrel is bored at the lowest convenient level, fitted with a wooden 
tap, such as is used for wine, oils or molasses, which is allowed to 
trickle in a very thin stream at all times, and which keeps the 
water in circulation and therefore fresh. 

The water will not freeze seriously in the barrels of a system 
of this kind, because having their heads in, the air is virtually 
excluded from the water; the taps are not apt to freeze because 
they are wood, and the water in the trough, while ice may form 
around the metal in the bottom, is always open to the fowls be- 
cause they are constantly drinking from it. At night the' water is 
drained off entirely, and a plug is substituted for the wooden 
spigot, consequently the latter cannot freeze. 

A barrel of water in a house of 500 fowls is a day's supply, 
except in very warm weather, when to keep the water cool and 



FEED HOPPERS 



151 



fresh it is advisable to fill the barrels twice a day — at noon and 
in the evening — and to allow twice the ordinary flow from the 
spigots. The troughs should be brushed out daily with a disin- 
fectant, which is not a tedious task if a cheap scrubbing brush 
and a small supply of disinfecting fluid is kept handy in each 
building. 

The manner of placing feed before the fowls constitutes an- 
other phase of the daily work in which a great deal of time and 
labor may be conserved by providing the right sort of appliances. 
It is impossible, of course, to establish rules that will meet the 
demands of all farms, for feeding principles vary. The most 
generally accepted practice, however, is to give a light feeding 




-t^- 



// /// // //- .// // / 




CECD3-3KTOM 

{California Experiment Station) 
Fig. 106. — Plahs for a dry mash hopper. 



of scratch grains in the morning, all the grain the fowls will clean 
up at night, and to keep a dry mash, beef scrap, charcoal, grit 
and oyster shells before the birds constantly. Or, the beef scrap 
and charcoal may be placed in the mash. 

Automatic feeders may be installed to distribute the scratch 
grains. These devices insure clean food, save labor and induce 
exercise, and it is surprising how quickly a pen of fowls will learn 
the trick of operating them. They are constructed mainly of 
galvanized sheet iron, and those having the largest capacity are 
usually the most desirable. Many of the largest commercial 
farms are equipped with them, not alone in the laying houses for 
mature stock, but in the rearing of young stock on the range and 
for little chicks in the brooder. 



152 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Mash Hoppers. — Assuming that a dry mash is fed, and this is 
conceded to be the most advanced method of feeding poultry, 
there is no economy in placing it before the fowls in small quan- 
tities, which necessitate filling the hoppers every day. Self- 
feeding, reliable, sanitary, non-wasteful hoppers of sufficient size 
to store large quantities, say, two or three hundred pounds, or 

a week's supply, should be pro- 
vided. 

There are no limitations to 
the style and construction of 
dry mash hoppers, any more 
than they should be as simple 
as possible, both for the birds 
to eat from, and for the atten- 
dant to fill, and care should be 
taken that the mash cannot be 
wasted by the fowls dragging 
it out on the floor with their 
beaks. Neither should they be 
allowed to scratch in it, nor 
foul it in any way, as they are 
prone to do if the hoppers are 
not fitted with lids or covers. 
Hoppers having slatted sides 
with openings just large enough for the birds to enter their heads, 
and fitted with a lip on the inside to prevent waste, are among the 
best types. They may be built as long and as high as desired, 
cheaply constructed, and made for both indoor and outdoor use. 
Shell Boxes. — In addition to dry mash hoppers, each pen 
should be equipped with a box for oyster shells and grit. These 
need not be large affairs, but convenient and accessible, sanitary 
and non-wasteful. The supply houses carry a wide assortment of 
them, built mostly of galvanized iron. 




(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 



Fig. 107. 



-Indoor mash hopper for use 
against a wall. 



CHAPTER XII 
DEVICES FOR DOORS AND GATES 

The experienced poultryman never fails to close his hen houses 
at night. He will tell you this practice is a part of the daily 
routine, quite as important as the feeding and watering. This 
closing up does not necessarily mean shutting the windows, cur- 
tains and doors with the view to keeping the house warm or pro- 
tected against storms. In fact, it has nothing to do with the 
temperature of the interior, but with its security — against intru- 
sion. 

Protection against burglars! Yes, that is correct. But not so 
much two-legged gentry, as four-footed raiders. The measure is 
inspired by a simple natural law — that poultry is the prey of dogs, 
cats, rats, weasels, foxes, minks and other varmints, and against 
which fowls must be protected by artificial means. 

For the sake of ventilation it is customary to build the greater 
part of the fronts of poultry houses in the form of windows, cur- 
tains and openings of one type or another. To close these would 
make the interior stuffy and humid, unhealthful, and in warm 
weather suffocatingly hot. The most approved type of poultry 
house is that which is known as the open-front house. In good 
practice these openings are carefully covered with small mesh 
netting, preferably cellar window screening, though inch mesh 
poultry netting will do nicely, which not only prevents the escape 
of the occupants of the house, but safeguards them against in- 
truders. 

Thus with netting over all openings the windows and curtains 
may be left in any position night or day with perfect safety. But 
— what about provision for the fowls to enter and leave the house? 

Fowls are Abroad Early. — At the first streak of light from the 
East, chickens stir themselves from their perches. At the earliest 

153 



154 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



opportunity they start afield,, and how they revel in these morn- 
ing hours, especially during the spring and summer months, be- 
fore sun-up, while the dew hangs heavily on the foliage, and every- 
thing seems fresh and full of life ! During warm weather particu- 
larly, this wandering abroad in the early morning is the most bene- 
ficial exercise a fowl can take. It not only provides exercise, but 
if the flock is given sufficient range, the fowls will forage for a 
considerable part of their keep, in the shape of greens and insect 




Fig. 108. — "In for the night." 



(Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 



life. All things considered this early morning outing should be 
encouraged wherever possible. 

Do Not Confine Chicks. — It is also true of young chickens. 
The growth of a brood is often stunted by keeping it confined to 
the sleeping quarters until the sun is high. Every minute in 
which a brood is kept off the grass, when conditions are such that 
it should be abroad, is detrimental to the flock's development and 
to the keeper's pocketbook. Like grown fowls, chicks are astir at 
daybreak, and from the moment it is light enough for them to 
even grope about, they struggle to gain their liberty. 



EARLY-RISING DOOR 155 

Unfortunately, most of us humans have not the same point of 
view as poultry. We do not struggle and trample one another to 
get outdoors at four o'clock in the morning. Just about that 
hour we would be willing to struggle against getting up, and the 
chances are we would put up a pretty lively struggle against it. 

Automatic Device. — Yet the fowls should be at liberty. If you 
leave a door open all night, though it may be but a hen door, you 
take the chance of having the house entered and robbed — not 
robbed of a single fowl, perhaps, but of a dozen, or maybe the 
entire flock will be killed, just for the sake of killing. 

The remedy is to install or equip the house with an automatic 
device that will permit the fowls to liberate themselves at dawn, 
in other words, to construct a self-opening door. I have called it 
the early-rising door. 

Chickens are creatures of habit. If they are accustomed to 
drinking at a particular spot, there they will look for water, even 
to the point of going through the motions of taking a drink. If 
they are in the habit of leaving a house or coop at a certain door, 
there they will congregate for admittance. It is due to this char- 
acteristic that it is so easy for the poultryman to contrive some- 
thing; for he has but to utilize the hen's weight to release a catch 
— and presto! the door is open. 

A swinging door or a sliding door can be operated, whichever 
is the most convenient; in most cases the latter is the easiest to 
build. In either case the mechanism should be completely located 
on the inside, so that the door cannot be accidentally released by 
the raider. Above everything else, keep the device as simple as 
possible, for the fewer the parts the less likely they are to get out 
of order. The wear and tear is heavy, more especially in the ac- 
cumulation of dirt, consequently it must be cleaned easily, and 
without danger of throwing the appliance out of adjustment. 

In the drawing shown in Fig. 109 there is shown a simple device 
for releasing a catch, which is applied to both a swinging and a 
vertically sliding door. It involves the simplest kind of a principle. 
The platform, or trigger board "A," is hinged to the threshold or 
wall of the house, and supported in a horizontal position by means 



156 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



of a light spring "B." The trigger "C," made from a piece of 
metal, preferably brass, since that material will not rust, engages 
a trip or cleat "D," when the platform is set. This cleat is also 
made of metal and is screwed to the door proper. It is not neces- 
sary for this part to be of brass, particularly if the trigger "C" 



"Put. LEV 




Fig. 109. — Details of a self-rising door. 



is composition, since brass against steel makes a good bearing 
surface. 

If a swinging door is used, it should be hinged on the outside 
of the building, using spring hinges similar to those commonly 
found on screen doors; but, of course, the hinges must be reversed 
so that the action of the door is to open outward instead of in- 



HEN'S WEIGHT RELEASES TRIP 



157 



ward. Or, plain hinges may be employed, and a weight or simple 
spring can be fastened to the door in such a way that it will be 
forced open as soon as the trigger disengages the cleat "D." If 
a sliding door is used, the force to raise it upward may consist 
of a spring or weight, as shown in diagram. The spring is the 
cheapest device, but the weight is probably the most generally 
satisfactory. Two awning pulleys fitted with screw-eyes, screwed 
into the wall of the house, a short length of cotton rope — clothes- 




Fig, no. 



(Courtesy C. L. Opperman) 
-Laying house on a Maryland poultry farm. 



line will do, and a cast iron window-cord weight are the articles 
required. 

When the house is closed for the night the early-rising door is 
set, as previously described, which only takes a couple of seconds. 
In the small hours of the morning, when the hens leave the perches 
and start to roam in quest of freedom outdoors, they are sure to 
go to their customary place of exit, and to walk onto the trigger 
platform "A." If necessary, at the beginning they can be trained 
to walk on the platform by placing a little grain on it, though I 
have never found this compulsory. Instantly the weight of the 
hen is transmitted to the platform, it sags an inch or two at the 



158 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

inward end, which releases the cleat " D," and the door flies open. 
This may surprise the fowls at first, but they soon become ac- 
customed to it. In fact, they will actually learn to operate it, 
just as they learn to operate an automatic feeder. 

Thus, Mr. Poultryman, you can finish your nap in peace; let 
Biddy do this early-rising work. 

It would be impracticable to make the adjustment of the 




(Courtesy C. L. Opperman) '. 

Fig. in. — Serviceable, inexpensive colony house, constructed of rough lumber 
covered with patent roofing paper. 

door so fine that the weight of a month-old chick could depress 
the platform; but this is not necessary. Chicks move about in 
crowds, especially when they are trying to get out of a building. 
Very good, the crowd passes across the trigger platform — and the 
trap is sprung! Liberty! 

In connection with the early-rising door it may be desirable to 
make the exit as near proof against raiders as possible, even in 
the daytime. Rats do most of their marauding at night, under 



MAKING OPEN DOOR RAT-PROOF 159 

cover of darkness, but they are not afraid of a daylight attack if 
conditions seem at all favorable. If rats abound in large numbers 
and food is scarce, they will become exceedingly bold. I have 
seen them search for food in broad daylight under the very eyes 
of an attendant, and fairly defy him to make any defence against 
their mischief. 

Rats appear to be good jumpers, but that is because they half 
climb and half jump to gain a certain position. They cannot 
jump straight into the air for any distance — two feet is easily their 
limit. They are good climbers, of course, yet they cannot pass 
a vertical surface of metal, because their claws will not grip the 
slippery metal. Thus, if a house is elevated a couple of feet from 
the ground, which is desirable anyhow if the house be frame, to 
prevent decay due to moisture, and its foundations are covered 
with a, strip of tin, as shown in Fig. 109, the rats will not be able 
to climb into the building. And if the exits are kept clear of any 
inclined runways, save for a projected shelf, as indicated, which 
is kept a couple of feet from the ground, the rats will not be able 
to jump into the building. 

Excepting the very heaviest breeds, it is no trouble for fowls to 
jump two feet, and thus gain entrance to the house. Mediter- 
raneans find it easy to jump three and four feet. Similarly, 
Mediterranean chicks, whose wing feathers develop at an early 
age, have no difficulty in flying two or three feet. 

Avoid Tedious Methods. — Ultimately the poultryman is bound 
to discover that the arrangement, accessibility and operation of 
doors and gates have a great deal to do with the labor expended on 
a flock. They have an important bearing on the ease and com- 
fort with which the numerous chores are performed, and this 
factor has a greater influence on the efficiency of a plant than 
many are inclined to suppose. It is especially vital where hired 
labor is concerned. Whatever the ethics or circumstances may 
be, it is a fact that an intelligent worker resents having to per- 
form a task by some tedious method, and in the course of time 
this worker is likely to slight the task by reason thereof. Finally, 
it may necessitate discharging the worker for negligence. 



160 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Most doors and gates are used constantly, and they are gen- 
erally used under more or less trying circumstances — either the 
fowls are being fed and watered, in which case the feeder has his 
hands very much occupied with buckets, or the eggs are being 
collected, or the buildings are being cleaned, both of which engage 
one's hands with equipment. Obviously, all doors and gates 
should operate freely, which means that they should be properly 
fitted, hung on strong hinges, and wherever possible they should 
be equipped with a self-closing device. 

Door Check. — There are numerous patented articles for closing 
doors, some of which close the door securely without slamming, 
but most of these are too expensive for general use on a chicken 
plant. Screen door springs are useful contrivances for doors or 
gates that open one way. Substitutes for them may be made out 
of a light piece of rope rove through a pulley and secured to a 
counterpoise weight of sufficient bulk to move the door. We have 
all seen this principle. It has been used for centuries — long before 
a steel spring was deemed possible. 

For doors and gates between pens and yards it has been found 
convenient to have them open both ways. In fact, they involve 
considerable inconvenience if they do not open both ways. This 
feature requires double-acting hinges. If the door is to be self- 
closing, which is virtually an indispensable feature, special spring 
double-acting hinges are necessary, unless the door is equipped 
with a double-acting self-closing device apart from the hinges. 
Reliable double-acting spring hinges are rather expensive, and 
most of them are of such material that if exposed to the weather 
for any length of time they soon deteriorate and become worth- 
less. 

Diagram in Fig. 112 shows two ideas for a home made double- 
acting self-closing device, based on the simple principle of the 
rope, pulley and weight employed for the one-way door. In 
detail 1 a wooden cross-piece "A" is nailed at right-angles to the 
top of the door, near the end that is hinged. A hole is bored in 
each end of this cross-piece, from which a light rope is run to a 
point, "B," thus forming a bridle. The single rope, "C," runs 



SELF-CLOSING DOOR 



161 



from the point, "B," to a pulley, "D," thence to a counterpoise 
weight. 

Whichever way the door is opened the cross-piece pulls on the 
bridle, one end of which draws tight as the other end loosens, 
which in turn lifts the weight. As soon as the door is released a 
corresponding strain is placed on the bridle by the weight, which 
closes the door. 




Fig. 112. — Details of a self-closing door. 

It is more complicated to describe this device than to build it. 
The essential idea is to have the weight evenly distributed on 
both sides of the cross-piece, which really amounts to having the 
cross-piece and bridle of the same length on both sides of the door. 
Thus, when the weight is distributed, and the door remains at 
what we might call a dead center, it will be in a closed position. 

The size of the counterpoise will necessarily depend upon the 



162 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

weight of the door or gate. The counterpoise should be amply 
heavy, so that the action of closing will be quick. Sash weights 
answer the purpose nicely, or narrow canvas bags filled with sand 
will do for indoor use. Naturally, the doors or gates between par- 
titions should be made as light as possible, which makes for ease 
of operation. White pine frames covered with wire netting are 
best. 

Detail 2, Fig. 112, illustrates a more direct principle of the rope 
and weight idea, though it is not always practicable to install it, 
because of the rope interfering with head room in the doorway. 
In this arrangement the pulley, "D," is fastened to the center of 
the jamb, or to a point on the partition which corresponds to the 
door-jamb. The rope, "C," is rove through the pulley, and one 



{California Experiment Station) 
Fig. 113. — Hook for catching fowls. 

end is secured to the top of the door or gate, in such a way that 
it receives the least chafe. The other end is made fast to the 
counterpoise. 

Either way the gate or door is opened it pulls the rope and 
raises the weight, which reacts as soon as the pressure is removed, 
the tendency being to draw the point, "B," toward the pulley. 
There is no leverage obtained by this arrangement, like that 
shown in detail 1, consequently the door offers more resistance 
when being opened, which might be considered an objection under 
certain circumstances. 

Hinges Out of Perpendicular. — Doors can be made self-closing 
by placing the hinges slightly out of the perpendicular, as shown 
in detail 3, Fig. 112, which alters the center of gravity of the door 



SECURING THE OPEN DOOR 



163 



TDoo-R 



the more it is opened. It is understood, of course, that the hinges 
themselves are in perfect line, otherwise they would not operate; 
it is the line of the door-jamb that is thrown out of plumb. 

Regular double-acting hinges are not necessary for partition 
doors and gates. They are apt to be too expensive. A simple 
gate hinge, or something 
fashioned after it, such as 
indicated in detail 4, Fig. 
112, will work just as well. 

Keeping a Door Open. — 
Sometimes it is just as im- 
portant to keep a door open 
as it is to keep it closed. For 
example, in warm weather 
the doors to poultry build- 
ings should be kept open as 
much as possible. The in- 
teriors need all the fresh air 
available, which is espe- 
cially desirable in colony 
houses for growing stock. 
Then, too, very often the 
entrance door is the only 
means of egress for the 
fowls, there being no 
special hen door; in which 
case it is important that 
the main door be held 
open at all times the flock 
is at liberty. 

Sudden storms are likely to occur, accompanied by high winds, 
which will slam and play havoc with doors if they are not firmly 
secured. If the doors blow shut, the fowls will be unable to seek 
the shelter of the houses, and such exposure to very young stock 
is almost certain to result in fatalities. On the other hand, if the 
door sways violently with the wind, though it does not actually 




Fig. 114.- 



-Convenient device for securing 
the open door. 



164 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



break from its hinges, it will frighten the birds away from the 
entrance. 




Fig. 115. — Details of stake for securing the open door, as shown in Fig. 114. 

Sticks or pieces of lumber, logs, bricks, stones and trash are 
frequently propped against doors to keep them open. These 
makeshifts are not only unsightly, but they are insecure and 



DEVICE THAT WORKS WITH THE FOOT 165 

troublesome. Instead of representing an economy, they are ac- 
tually wasteful, both in the probable damage to the door and live- 
stock, and in the loss of one's time in adjusting them. I have 
seen doors fastened by an involved system of cord, wire, hooks, 
leather and other bits of junk that were more intricate to open 
than a bank vault door, which means lost time — waste. 

If a door or gate hinges so that it opens against the building, 
and there is nothing to prevent it from swinging flat against the 
wall, it may be secured by a common gate hook. It is not always 
convenient nor practicable to do this, however, on account of 
windows, curtain frames and other projections. A similar strong 
fastening may be made by driving a stake into the ground and 
attaching the door to it by a gate hook. But this operation 
requires stooping over, and perhaps the use of two hands, there- 
fore an improvement is suggested in Figs. 114-115. This fasten- 
ing is operated by a simple movement of the foot, and if the device 
is securely made there is no chance of the door working loose. 

The stake is cut from any timber that may be available, though 
two-by-four material is about the right size, pointed at one end 
to facilitate driving it into the soil. See Fig. 115. The rest of the 
device consists of a button that is movable, and an off-set block, 
which is nailed to the stake. The off-set block is cut from ma- 
terial slightly thicker than the door, to allow a certain amount of 
play. A carriage bolt and washer complete the affair. 

The hole in the button should be bored slightly larger than the 
bolt on which it turns; the button, being longer at one end, there- 
fore heavier, will always assume an upright position, which en- 
gages the bottom of the door, as shown. By turning the button 
with the toe of one's shoe to a horizontal position the door may be 
released or secured. The stake may be removed complete and 
driven elsewhere when desired. 



CHAPTER XIII 
TRAP NESTS 

While the value of trap nests for breeding purposes is still a 
subject for argument, there is no controverting the fact that they 
constitute the only positive means of determining the exact laying 
ability of a hen. Moreover, their use makes it possible to ascer- 
tain which hens lay the best shaped eggs, which the largest sized, 
which the strongest in point of fertility, which are the best winter 
layers, which pullets begin early and lay the greatest number of 
eggs in succession, the number of times they become broody, 
and many other facts of vital interest to the poultryman. But 
whether or not this information is considered of sufficient value 
to warrant the additional time, trouble and expense of operating 
a trap nest system is the debatable question that must be deter- 
mined by every poultryman for himself. 

Some authorities swear by them as the only means of building 
up a heavy-laying strain; others condemn their use as too ex- 
pensive a method of selection for the average breeder. The New 
York State Experiment Station estimated the cost of maintaining 
a trap nest system to be fifty cents per hen per year, while the 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station states their system can 
be operated on the basis of one active person to 500 nests for 2500 
hens — which, at a wage of $40 per month, amounts to about 
twenty cents per hen per year. Thus, there is a wide difference 
of opinion on the subject. There seems to be truth in the argu- 
ments for and against the trap nest as a commercial proposition ; 
but for purposes of investigation, and where a breeder of show 
stock wishes to record pedigrees accurately, they are unques- 
tionably indispensable. 

My intention in this chapter is not to discuss the pros and cons 

166 



ELEMENTS OF A GOOD TRAP NEST 



167 



for the employment of the device, so much as to describe the con- 
struction and operation of a few simple, types of trap nests, 
home-made appliances which I have found to be mechanically 
satisfactory. There are reliable makes of trap nests on the 
market, at such nominal prices that in many cases it does not 
pay the poultryman to make them himself. 

Primarily, a good trap nest must be certain in action. It 
must not only imprison the hen that enters, but it must refuse 
admittance to all others until a record of the first performer has 
been secured. It should also offer an inviting, quiet, comfort- 
able retreat for the hen, care being taken that the locking device 
is not so violent in its action as to engender fright, and that when 
closed, the interior, especially 
in summer time, is not suffo- 
catingly warm. Furthermore, 
the nest should be accessible, 
convenient for the attendant 
to open and remove the hen, 
and with no intricate parts to 
dislodge and get out of order, 
or require unnecessary time in 
resetting the trigger or door. 

The nest should be of ample 
size, usually larger than the or- 
dinary nest, so that when the hen has laid her egg and commences 
moving about in an effort to rejoin the flock, she is not obliged 
to trample or stand on the egg and thus run the risk of breaking it. 
The nest should offer easy means of cleaning its interior and re- 
plenishing it with nesting material. 

Storrs' Nest. — The trap nest employed at the Storrs egg-laying 
contest, plans of which are shown in Fig. 117, was developed at 
the Connecticut Agricultural College, and has given entire satis- 
faction for several years. 

It consists mainly of two movable parts, the trigger and the 
door, both of which are comparatively easy to make and may be 
fitted to any box of suitable size. The door is 8)4 inches high, 




(Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 

Fig. 116. — Home- made trap nest, simi- 
lar to the Storrs' nest. 



168 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



n}A inches wide at the top and 1 1 inches wide at the bottom, and 
being narrower at the bottom, as it swings shut it has no tendency 




Battery of three nests. 

"1 




Section through nest 



Dimensions of door. 




Detail of trigger. 
Fig. 117. — General arrangement of the Storrs' trap nest. 

to rub or bind against the sides of the nest box. It is bound with 
a thin piece of metal, galvanized sheet iron strips cut from stove 



DESCRIPTION OF STORRS' NEST 



169 



pipes or other similar material will answer the purpose nicely, 
which project above the top for about an inch, or far enough to 
permit of punching a small hole in each end of the strip, through 
which a piece of fairly rigid wire is slipped, forming a hinge upon 
which the door swings. 

The trigger is a trifle more difficult to make than the door, for 
it is small and must be accurately cut as shown in the diagram, 




{Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig. 118. — Corner of a well-designed laying house. Trap nests are arranged 
under dropping-boards. Note broody hen coop at extreme end. 



or it will not balance properly. This is an easy matter with a 
jig saw or band saw. It should be made from $4" or i" close- 
grained stock, the harder the wood the better. The hole bored 
for the screw that is to fasten the trigger to the side of the box 
should be slightly larger than the screw itself, to secure free action. 
To set the nest, the front end of the trigger is slightly depressed 
and the door pushed inward until it engages the notch in the 



170 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



trigger. When the hen enters, she pushes against the door with 
her back; this disengages the trigger, allowing the door to close 
after her, and by the same operation locks the door from within, 
— for the trigger has simultaneously assumed a horizontal posi- 




Treadle set with door open to admit hen. 




Treadle sprung — door closed. 
Fig. 119. — Details of the Maine trap nest. 



tion. Small wooden buttons or bent screw-eyes are screwed to 
the partitions, turned in such a manner as to prevent the doors 
swinging outward when the nest is sprung. To open the nest, 
the attendant has but to turn the little button, open the door 
outward, and remove the hen. 



MAINE TRAP NEST 171 

Batteries of Nests. — The floor and sides of the nest should be 
solid, the top is slatted for ventilation, and if the back of the nest 
is to be placed against a wall of the poultry building it may be 
left entirely open, which will facilitate cleaning when the boxes 
are removed. It is a good plan to construct the nests in portable 
sections or batteries of about four each, and if built of light ma- 
terial, — half-inch white pine or poplar will do nicely, — they may 
be conveniently handled for cleaning by one man. A four-inch 
board is fastened to the lower portion of the front to stiffen the 
partitions and retain the nesting material, and if it is found that 
small hens can walk over this board without disturbing the door, 
the distance between the nesting material and the lower edge of 
the door should be reduced accordingly, either by increasing the 
quantity of nesting material, increasing the depth of the front 
board or extending the length of the door. A platform or shelf 
of some kind should be built in front of the nests for the hens to 
walk upon in entering and leaving the traps. 

Maine Nest. — The Maine Agricultural Experiment Station 
has developed a two-compartment nest which seems to possess 
several important advantages over the single type previously 
described; yet because of them it is considerably more trouble- 
some and expensive to build. Diagrams of this nest are shown in 
Fig. 119, and represent longitudinal views with one side removed 
to illustrate the construction and method of operation. 
% The nest is a box-like structure, without front or cover, 28 
inches long, 13 inches wide and 16 inches deep, inside measure- 
ments, — divided in the middle with a partition extending 6 inches 
from the bottom. The rear compartment is the nest proper, 
and contains the nesting material, while the front section is de- 
voted to a treadle for closing the front entrance, and need not 
have any other bottom. This treadle is hinged to the door, and 
by a nice balance it can be so delicately adjusted that a weight 
of less than half a pound on the treadle will spring the trap. 

When the nest is set, ready for occupancy, the door extends 
outward in a horizontal position as shown in upper diagram. A 
hen about to lay steps on the door and walks in toward the rear 



172 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



of the nest; as she passes the point where the door is hinged to 
the treadle, her weight causes it to fall, which pulls up the door 
behind her, as shown in lower view. It is then impossible for the 
hen to leave the nest or for other hens to enter, until the atten- 



_. 




erf «— 




r - 




* ™ 




=£ -te — ' 


i 


■y 


i 







o 




^ 
J 


STRAIGHT XDtW 
OVTjipc DOOH-3TOP 
/ 






- 


^'OLSAlAtKe 








L.l \A 




P 


i 


i 








• 

II 








i 






F 


£>firVi 


EiW 












t 



r — -ft " ■ ' :« ' \l£ = M 

h —ft ' •! 



&'«uf-hSuw 

{California Rxperiment Station) 
Fig. 120. — Plans for a single-compartment trap nest. 

dant resets the trap by depressing the door to its original hori- 
zontal position. The operation is extremely simple, consists of 
but one movement, with no triggers or other locking devices to 
adjust. 

When a hen has laid an egg and desires to leave the nest, she 



TWO-COMPARTMENT NEST 



173 



steps into the front section, toward the light, entering the screen 
door, and remains there until released. There is little danger 
of her trampling on the egg she has just laid, or soiling or dis- 



St®M 



^1 



. % CLCAttA/Kt 



TURfl ftVTTOfl 



-^fe"rtOH HASL&*A&L CLCTTH *^ 

Front view. 



H*- 




nooLDinG ■ 



°L 



Cross-section. 

{California Experiment Station) 

Fig. 121. — Plans for a two-compartment trap nest. 



turbing the nesting material. Dry manure collecting on the 
treadle is easily scraped off with a putty knife or similar imple- 
ment, and allowed to fall through the open bottom. 

At the 'Maine Station these nests are arranged in tiers and 



174 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

operated like drawers. To remove a hen, the nest is pulled part 
way out, and as it has no cover, the bird is easily caught. Usually, 
after having been taken off the nests a few times, hens become 
accustomed to this handling and remain perfectly quiet, 'appar- 
ently expecting to be picked up. 

For the sake of greater durability, it is advisable to build all 
parts connected with the treadle and door of fairly good material, 
especially the bevelled cleat on which the door bears and the 
side frames of the door, which should be of beech or other hard 
wood that will become polished with wear. One-quarter inch 
mesh galvanized wire netting, commonly used on cellar window 
screens, is securely stapled to the inside of the door frame, thus 
admitting light and air to the nest. The hinges used in fastening 
the door to the treadle, and the treadle to the middle partition, 
should have brass pins, otherwise they are likely to rust and work 
stiffly. It may also be necessary to file the pins slightly, to in- 
sure the hinges working with perfect freedom. 

Diagrams shown in Figs. 120 and 121 illustrate other types 
of nests. An examination of them will suffice to explain their 
principles of operation. They were developed at the California 
Experiment Station. 



CHAPTER XIV 
FEEDING 

The feeding operations on a poultry farm, large or small, con- 
stitute the largest part of routine work. It is work that is done 
every day, and several times a day. No other work must be 
done so punctually and with such care as feeding. Feeding — 
promptly, properly and economically, makes for success or fail- 
ure. It is one of the fundamentals of the enterprise. 

Need for System. — Before discussing the virtues of different 
feeds and how to compound them in rations suitable for given 
purposes, we will review some of the methods of handling feed 
and placing it before the flocks. The facilities for storage and 
distribution are highly important, and result either in needless 
waste of time and labor, or in a corresponding saving of these 
factors. It is to be deplored that so many farms fail to give this 
subject the attention which it deserves, and no doubt a great 
many failures might be attributed to this oversight. 

Simplicity of Operation. — The best feeding system is one that 
reduces and simplifies the number of handlings and operations, 
and at the same time renders the greatest ease and convenience 
to the feeder. The first consideration is the location of the feed 
storage. Obviously, this location should be a central one. The 
feed house should be as nearly equidistant to the laying houses, 
brooder houses and colony houses as it is possible to make it; 
not at one end of the group of buildings, which necessitates long 
walks in getting the feed to the farthest houses. 

If a special feed house is to be built it is a simple matter to 
locate this structure where it will have the fullest accessibility. 
On large plants it may be found advisable to have two or more 
feed houses, for in no other way is it possible to have the feed 

175 




176 



SPECIAL FEED HOUSE 177 

close to the flocks. Some ponltrymen build a feed room in con- 
nection with each long laying house, usually in the center of the 
building, and sometimes with overhead tracks to convey the 
feed to the birds. See Fig. 122. An important saving in labor 
is accomplished by such equipment, and where large quantities 
of heavy feed are used, as on duck plants of any size, these meas- 
ures are essential. 

The overhead track system, from which cars are swung and 
made to run by pushing them, similar to litter carriers in dairy 
barns, is thoroughly practical in every way. Another method is 
to employ tramcars operated on rails, which may be of wood or 
steel. For indoor use the overhead rail is cheapest, because the 
building can be made to support the track. See Fig. 123. Out- 
doors the tramway is generally the most economical. 

It is doubtful if the average size poultry plant would be justi- 
fied in expending the capital required to install any sort of a 
carrier. Certainly plants under 3000 birds would not be war- 
ranted in so doing. 

Converting Old Buildings. — Then, again, many poultry farms 
are started on premises which have certain buildings erected, as, 
for example, a barn or wagon house, which with a few improve- 
ments may be converted into satisfactory feed houses. In this 
event the poultry houses should be built on sites adjacent to the 
barn, and on all sides of it, though not too close, which will inter- 
fere with a satisfactory arrangement of yards. Another objection 
to having the buildings too close arises from the fire hazard. It 
is a good plan to have the buildings at least a hundred feet apart, 
preferably two hundred feet. In this way, should a fire occur 
in some part of the plant, it can be fought and confined to the one 
building. 

Avoid Crowding the Buildings. — You will find some farms with 
the buildings all bunched up together; incubator cellar with 
brooder house and feed room overhead, and leading off from the 
feed room are the laying houses, breeding pens and yards for 
young stock. Such an arrangement is convenient by reason of 
its compactness, but when carried to extremes it is likely to result 



178 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



in grave risks, not alone from fire, but from the evils of too in- 
tensive methods — insanitation and disease. 

The size, character and appointments of the feed house will be 
determined largely by the capacity of the plant and its stock. 
For instance, duck farms need different equipment from chicken 
farms, and the requirements of the egg farm are different from 
the broiler plant. Following are some of the points to be con- 




{Courtesy C. L. Opperman) 

Fig. 123. — Feed carrier suspended from overhead traclc which runs continu- 
ously through all the houses. 



sidered: Have the building large enough for the storage of at 
least a month's supply of feed, preferably larger, because during 
certain seasons of the year it is possible to buy grain at reduced 
prices, and important savings can be made thereby. Make the 
building as near rat and mouse proof as possible. When these 
pests gain access to a feed house there is no end to their thievery. 
They will consume or spoil hundreds of dollars' worth of feed in a 



FEED STORAGE 179 

season, and in many cases this loss may go on for months before 
it is noticed. 

Construction. — Masonry or metal is the best construction to 
obstruct vermin. Hollow tile or concrete makes splendid walls 
and floors for granaries. If this is too expensive, and frame con- 
struction is used, then some provision must be made to keep the 
rodents from gnawing through the partitions and floors. If the 
building is raised from the ground and supported on piers, it 
is feasible to baffle the rats and mice by means of tin so arranged 
that they cannot climb up the piers because of the slippery sur- 
face of the tin. Where this is impracticable small mesh wire 
netting should be laid over the floor joists and wall studs, through 
which the rodents cannot pass. 

Storage bins are not necessary unless feed is purchased in 
bulk, or unless the original sacks must be returned as soon as the 
feed is received. The use of bins for storing unmixed feed in- 
volves two unnecessary handlings — the emptying of the feed into 
the bin, and its removal when required for mixing. Then, too, 
feed keeps better in sacks, and it may be piled up almost as com- 
pactly as in bins. When feed is stored in bulk provision must be 
made to ventilate it, otherwise it will heat and spoil. If stored 
in sacks, and piled up so that air can circulate freely around the 
bags, there is little or no danger from heating. 

In the majority of times a charge of about ten cents is made for 
the bags, which charge is redeemable when the bags are returned 
in good condition. This is another reason why the feed room 
should be free from vermin: rats and mice gnaw through the 
sacks and play havoc with them. 

Since most poultry feeds consist of a mixture of grains or meals, 
it is advisable to have a few bins (barrels will answer the purpose 
on small farms) wherein these mixtures are stored for every-day 
use. It is more convenient to remove a bucketful of feed from 
a barrel or bin than from a sack. And the most convenient bin 
is one from which the feed may be scooped out with a bucket, 
preferably the actual feeding bucket. To fill the feed buckets 
with a shovel or other implement involves needless operations. 



180 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Place for Mixing. — If the poultry feeds are mixed on the farm, 
it will be necessary to provide a suitable place for this work. It 
is no small task to mix the dry mash mixture for several thousand 
birds, or even one thousand hens. The mixing will probably be 
done in lots of from five hundred to a thousand pounds, maybe in 
ton batches. 

How to Mix. — The best place for this work is the feed room 

floor, consequently it 
should be tight, con- 
structed of tongue 
and grooved boards, 
and smooth, so as to 
offer no obstructions 
to the use of shovels 
or scoops. Suppos- 
ing that the feed is 
piled up around the 
walls of the room, 
the most convenient 
way to proceed with 
the mixing is to 
empty the required 
number of bags in a 
pile. Begin with the 
ingredient having 
the greatest bulk, 
such as bran or alfal- 
fa; dump it, spread 
it out a bit, and then 
add the other ingre- 
dients, reserving the most concentrated feed, such as beef scrap, 
until last. When the ingredients are all heaped in a pile, turn 
the mass over with a broadcasting motion of the shovel or scoop, 
repeating the operation two or three times, or until the mash is 
uniformly mixed. 

If two men do the mixing, one man should rake the mass back 




{Courtesy Millioyi Egg Farm) 



Fig. 124. — Combination automatic feeder, grit and 
shell box. 



FEED-HOUSE IMPLEMENTS 181 

and forward, while the other fellow turns it over. A large, half- 
bushel grain scoop is the most efficient implement for the shovel- 
ing, because it handles such a large quantity in a single operation. 

Storage in Hoppers. — As soon as the mash is mixed, it should 
be stored in a bin ready for use, though a good plan is to have self- 
feeding mash hoppers in all of the poultry houses of such capacity 
that they will accommodate the bulk of the mash mixed at each 
operation. Unnecessary handling is eliminated in this way, for 
the mash is carried right from the mixing floor to the hoppers, 
and only a small surplus is stored in the feed-house bins. Savings 
of this sort are considerable in the course of a year's work. 

Unless automatic feeders are installed throughout the plant, 
it is not practicable to handle the scratch grain mixtures the same 
as the mash. See Fig. 124. Scratch grains are usually dis- 
tributed by hand twice a day, morning and evening. Sometimes 
the grains are fed separately. If mixed, which seems to be the 
most accepted practice, these scratch grains usually consist of 
but a few grains, such as corn, wheat and oats (except the chick 
feeds), which are much easier to mix than the mash, which con- 
sists of meals. Dumping the grains into a barrel or bin and stir- 
ring them with a potato fork will perform all the mixing neces- 
sary. 

Need for Power. — On plants of considerable size it is poor 
economy to mix and prepare the feed by hand. Power should be 
installed. If electric power is available, this will probably prove 
the cheapest, otherwise a gasoline engine is necessary. Get a 
motor or engine plenty large enough to handle all of the machines 
without danger of over-loading it, and so arrange it that it can 
be hooked up to each machine with the least amount of time and 
worry. An overhead system of belts and pulleys is the safest 
and most convenient arrangement. Provide a tight and loose 
pulley for each machine, so that the drive can be thrown on and 
off at will. An engine or motor of three or four horsepower will 
take care of the average poultry plant equipment. 

The machines necessary to lighten the burden of hand labor 
are as follows: Bone Cutter, for grinding fresh bones, com- 



182 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



monly called green bones, which is fed in place of the cured meat 
scrap and similar prepared animal feeds. 

Hay Cutter, for cutting clover, rye, alfalfa and other succu- 
lent feeds, also to be used for cutting dry hay and straw for litter 
in the brooder houses. 




(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig. 125. — Outdoor feed hopper built on skids or runners. Cover is raised, 
showing partitions for different kinds of feed. Note the small lids hooked 
against body of hopper, which can be lowered to keep rats or mice from stealing 
the feed. 



Vegetable Cutter: This is really a shredder, and is used to cut 
and tear mangels, turnips and other vegetables into short lengths. 
Fowls eat vegetables with greater relish if they are cut into bits, 
and there is less waste than feeding them whole. 

Mash Mixer: This is indispensable if wet mashes are fed in any 
quantity. Mixers are made in a number of sizes, heavily built 



ELEMENTS OF POULTRY FEEDING 183 

and geared, and so devised that they can be made to dump their 
contents. They consist mainly of a cylinder-shaped body, in 
the center of which a shaft is operated. This shaft is fitted with 
propeller-like blades or flukes that revolve and agitate the mash. 

A Cooker or Steaming Kettle is another valuable adjunct 
to the feed-room equipment, especially where it is desirable to 
feed hot mashes during the winter. The caldron may be used 
to heat water for scalding feeding utensils, and for scalding ducks 
for picking. It will be found useful in many ways where heat is 
required. 

Poultry supply houses keep a full line of these accessories, or 
they may be purchased direct from the manufacturers. It will 
undoubtedly prove worth while for the poultry keeper to in- 
vestigate them. 

Feeding poultry has more angles and arguments to it than is 
generally supposed. The broad understanding of the office of 
food is that it supports life. In the case of animals this objective 
becomes more definite. We feed them that we may convert 
certain vegetable, animal and mineral substances, which are not 
palatable to the human taste in their raw state, into finished food 
products which are edible by man. 

In this respect stock feeding may be compared to a manu- 
facturing process. And this process may be divided into three 
principal stages: First, growth of the fowl; second, reproduction 
of the species; and third, the storing of surplus energy in the form 
of flesh. 

These factors are inseparable. We must supply materials 
with which to build bone, muscle, tissues and feathers in growing 
stock. See Table VII. We must furnish the fuel for muscular 
energy, digestion, repairs to tissues and the renewal of organic 
secretions. In the young fowl these elements promote growth. 
When this growth is complete, or nearly so, reproduction com- 
mences. If there is a surplus of material in excess of the require- 
ments of reproduction and maintenance, which there should be in 
the healthy, normal fowl, this surplus is stored up in the body as a 



184 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



reserve in the event of a failure of the regular supply. Usually 
this surplus consists of fat. 

Table VII 

Digestible Nutrients Required per Day for Each ioo Pounds of Fowls 

for Bodily Maintenance 



Nutritive 
Ratio 



Capons (9 to 12 pounds) 
Hens (5 to 7 pounds) . . . 
Hens (3 to 5 pounds) . . . 



Total 










Dry 




Pro- 


Carbo- 




Mat- 


Ash 


tein 


hy- 


Fat 


ter 






drates 




2.30 


O.06 


O.30 


I.74 


0.20 


2.70 


0.10 


0.40 


2.00 


0.2G 


3-9« 


0.15 


O.50 


2-95 


0.30 



i to 7.5 
1 to 6.2 
1 to 7.4 

Digestible Nutrients Required per Day for Each 100 Pounds of Fowls 

in Full Laying 

0.20 I 0.65 I 2.25 I 0.20 I 1 to 4.2 
0.30 I 1. 00 I 3.75 I 0.35 I 1 to 4.6 



Hens (5 to 8 pounds) I 3.30 

Hens (3 to 5 pounds) | 5.50 



Digestible Nutrients Required per Day for Each 100 Pounds 
of Growing Chicks 
First 2 weeks 



Second 2 weeks 

From 4 to 6 weeks. . . 
From 6 to 8 weeks . . . 
From 8 to 10 weeks. . 
From 10 to 12 weeks. 



10. 1 


0-5 


2.0 


7.2 


0.4 


9.6 


0.7 


2.2 


6.2 


0.5 


8.6 


0.6 


2.0 


5-6 


0.4 


7-4 


0-5 


1.6 


4-9 


0.4 


6.4 


0.5 


1.2 


4.4 


0-3 


5-4 


0.4 


1.0 


37 


0-3 



1 to 4.1 

1 to 3.4 

1 to 3.4 

1 to 3.7 

1 to 4.3 

1 to 4.4 



Digestible Nutrients Required per Day for Each 100 Pounds 
of Growing Ducklings 
First 2 weeks 



From 2 to 4 weeks . . . 
From 4 to 6 weeks . . . 
From 6 to 8 weeks. . . 
From 8 to 1 o weeks . . 
From 10 to 15 weeks. 



17.2 


I.I 


4.0 


11. 2 


1.4 


17.0 


i-5 


4.1 


10. 1 


i-3 


II. 2 


0.8 


2.7 


7.0 


0.7 


8.0 


0.6 


i-7 


5-2 


0.5 


7.0 


0.5 


1.4 


4-7 


0.4 


4.6 


0.3 


0.9 


3-2 


0.2 



1 to 3.7 
1 to 3.2 
1 to 3.3 
1 to 3.8 
1 to 4.1 
1 to 4.1 



Throwing a pailful of food to a flock of birds at regular intervals 
is not feeding them in the strict sense of the term. To feed stock 
intelligently, which is to say economically and properly, means to 
cater to their bodily requirements in every particular. First 
of all we must have some knowledge of the demands of the body 
and its functions. We must have a similar knowledge of the 
composition of the different foodstuffs and their availability in 
meeting the demands of the body. We must consider the me- 



POINTS TO CONSIDER 



185 



chanical condition of the various foods, since some are more 
convenient to use than others. And we must pay attention 
to their digestibility and palatability. For example, some 
feeds possess most of the elements of a well-proportioned diet, 
but if fed exclusively 
or in large quantities, 
they are harmful in 
that they tax the fowl's 
digestion. Then again, 
some feeds are practi- 
cally incapable of diges- 
tion by fowls. 

Palatability and Di- 
gestibility. — On the 
other hand, no matter 
how digestible and nour- 
ishing a particular food 
may be, if it is not palat- 
able to the fowls, they 
will not eat freely enough 
of it to sustain them in 
proper condition. It has 
been found in practice, 
however, that highly di- 
gestible foods are usually 
equally palatable, pro- 
viding they are fed in 
sufficient variety, hence 
this point is a consider- 
ation. Moreover, it has 
been found that certain 

foods are made more digestible when fed in conjunction with 
certain other foods. 

The cost of the feed is another vital consideration, if not the 
most vital point. Economical feeding means to use those ma- 
terials which render the greatest benefit at the least cost. This is 




(Courtesy C. L. Opperman) 

Fig. 126. — Overhead rail system for carrying 
feed and other supplies. 



186 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



saying a great deal, as we shall see. A food that costs very little 
money is not necessarily a cheap food. On the contrary the most 
expensive feeds to buy are sometimes the cheapest. .In other 
words, price alone should not determine the cost of a food. Price 
plus results should form the decision. 

No matter how cheap a food may be, if the fowl cannot secure 
substantial benefits from it, it is expensive to use in that it is 
largely wasted. See Table X. For example, rye, though similar 
to wheat, has little value as a poultry feed. The fat of rye is 
quite indigestible, and tends to cause organic disturbances. 
And there is something about rye grain which is distasteful to 
birds; they do not care for it, and seldom eat it unless compelled 
to do so. On the other hand, sprouted rye is exceedingly palat- 
able, and fowls do well on it. This is characteristic of the knowl- 
edge which the successful poultryman must have. 

Composition of Fowl. — Let us begin with the composition of the 
fowl's body. We should know its analysis, or how are we to 
fupply the. necessary elements? This is going to lead us into a 
technical discussion, though it is the writer's intention to devote 
as little space as possible to scientific expression. It is wearisome 
to the practical poultryman, and of little value outside of the 
laboratory. 

The fowl's body, as with any form of life, consists of numerous 
substances or compounds. For convenience they are grouped 
under four general headings: water, protein, ash and fat. Table 
VIII shows the percentages of these elements. 



Table VIII. — Composition of Fowl and Egg 



Leghorn hen 

Plymouth Rock capon. 
New-laid egg, complete 
Egg, without shell .... 

White of egg 

Yolk of egg 



Water Protein 



Per cent 

55-8 
41.6 

65-7 

7445 

86.2 

49-5 



Per cent 
21.6 
19.4 
II.4 
I2.l6 
12.3 

15-7 



Per cent 

3-8- 
3-7 
12,2 
0.97 
0.2 
1.1 



Fat 



Per cent 

17.O 

33-9 

8.9 

9-74 
0.6 

33-3 



ANALYSIS OF FOWL'S BODY 



187 



It will be seen from Table VIII that the hen's body is over half 
water, and that the egg which she produces is nearly three- 
fourths water. Obviously water is as essential to her welfare as 
food. In fact, a fowl can go without food with fewer ill effects 
than it can go without water, especially during warm weather. 
Lack of water retards every function of the body, thickens the 
blood and raises the body temperature. Failure to supply a liberal 
quantity of clean fresh water is particularly hard on growing- 
chicks. It stunts their development quite as much as sickness. 



Table IX. 



-Cost of Protein from Different Foodstuffs, According 
to California Experiment Station 



Alfalfa hay 

Alfalfa meal 

Barley 

Blood, dried 

Casein, dried 

Corn 

Cottonseed meal 

Linseed-oil cake meal (n. p.) 
Linseed-oil cake meal (o. p.) 

Meat, fresh 

Meat scraps 

Milk, skim 

Milk, granulated 

Oats 

Peas 

Rice 

Rice bran 

Rye 

Soya-bean meal 

Wheat bran 

Wheat, plump 

Wheat, shrunken 

Wheat shorts 



Price Per Ton 
in Dollars 



16 

21 
30 
60 
80 
22 

33 
34 
60 
60 
60 

4 
80 

25 
80 

36 
30 

27 

45 
23 
27 
3i 

28 



Protein .in 

Pounds Per 

Ton 



210 
2IO 
168 
1216 
1500 
140 

752 
630 
582 
400 

1324 

66 

iooo 

178 
380 
128 
214 
150 

600 
220 

170 

264 

246 



Digestible 
Protein. 

Price Per 
Pound in 

Cents 



7.6 

I O.O 

17.8 

4-9 

5-3 

15-7 

4-3 

5-4 

5-8 

15.0 

4.6 

6.0 

8.0 

14.04 

21.0 

28.1 

14.0 

18.0 

7-5 
10.4 
14.8 
11.7 
H-3 



Protein, sometimes spoken of as nitrogenous matter, because 
nitrogen is its most distinguishing characteristic, is the most im- 
portant group of materials found in the body. In reality protein 



188 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



is the foundation or base of all living tissue — the substance 
through which life is manifested. The muscles, skin, tendons, 
brain, feathers, blood and internal organs are composed chiefly 
of protein. The white of the egg when dry is almost all protein, 
while the dried yolk is one-third protein. 



Tfl"R "PflT=ETTi -CflMVflS 




m fi<5 2 M ' 






Undeh Suae o-f Co^er 


. 






3/<^-■■ te.' Bittcm 


. . t 






n 




1 


$• 




3/V* 2" BUTTEN 




"^\Q. 3 






Fig. 127. — Designs for feed hoppers that are sanitary and non-wasteful. 



Ash, or the mineral substances, such as lime, silicon, mag- 
nesium and so on, form the incombustible material of the body. 
In short, ash is that part of the body which is left after the vola- 
tile and combustible elements are driven off by heat, the heat 
being created by the fats. Considerable ash enters into the egg, 
and it is an important element in the structure of bone and 



COMPOSITION OF FOODS 



189 



feathers. Foods which supply ash are especially vital to the 
growth of young stock. 

Fats comprise the fuel of the body. They are burned to main- 
tain the body temperature, to produce the energy required in all 
muscular action, and where the supply is greater than the im- 
mediate needs of the fowl, they are stored up in fatty tissues under 
the skin or in globules distributed throughout the muscles, giving 
the fowl a full, plump appearance. This fat constitutes a re- 
serve force, and will vary according to the health and condition 
of the fowl. Too much fat is as bad as too little, because it 
tends to make the fowl sluggish and non-productive. 



Table X. — Average Digestion Coefficients of Different Foods with 
Chickens, According to the Maine Experiment Station 



Number 



Experi- 
ments 



Organic 
Matter 



Crude 
Protein 



Nitro- 
gen-Free 
Extract 



Ether 

Extract 

(Fat) 



Bran (wheat) . . . 

Beef scrap 

Beef (lean meat) 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Corn (whole) . . . 
Corn (cracked) . 
Corn (meal) .... 

Clover 

India wheat .... 

Millet 

Oats (whole) . . . 

Peas 

Wheat 

Rye 

Potatoes 



2 

3 

2 

16 

2 
2 

3 
3 

2 

13 

3 

io 

2 

6 



46.70 

80.20 

87.65 
77.17 
69.38 
86.87 
83-30 
83.10 

27.70 
72.70 

62.69 

77.07 
82.26 

79.20 

78.33 



71.70 

92.60 
90.20 
77-32 

59-40 
81.58 
72.20 
74.60 
70.60 
75.00 
62.40 

7i-3i 
87.00 

75-05 
66.90 
46.94 



46.00 



85.09 
86.99 
91.32 
88.10 
86.00 
14-30 
83.40 

98.39 
90.10 
84.80 
87.04 
86.70 
84.46 



37.00 
95.00 
86.30 
67.86 
89.22 
88.11 
87.60 
87.60 
35-50 
83.80 

85-71 
87.89 
80.01 
53-00 
22.60 



Composition of Foods. — The same elements which are found in 
the fowl's body or in the egg are also found in different foods. 
But it should be understood that these elements are not trans- 
ferred as such direct from the food to the body tissues. On the 
contrary, they are entirely remade. The food elements are taken 
into the body, digested and assimilated, and when they are in such 



190 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



form that the blood can absorb them, they are distributed 
throughout the body as required. Water is a great aid in this 
respect, in that it softens the food in the crop and prepares it for 
the grinding process in the gizzard. It also serves as a carrier 
in transporting the food through the digestive tract, and being a 
liquid it dilutes the digested elements so that they can be more 
readily absorbed. 




(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 128. — Simple type of outdoor feed hopper. Cover is made water-tight 
by means of patent roofing material. 



Nutrients. — Those portions of the food which yield heat or 
energy or serve the body in any way are termed nutrients. 
Nourishing elements would be another way of expressing the 
parts or constituents of food. They are classified in five groups, 
as follows: (1) water, (2) protein, (3) carbohydrates, (4) fats, 
(5) ash. 



NUTRIENTS 



191 



Water and ash are the inorganic nutrients; protein, carbo- 
hydrates and fats are the organic elements. For convenience 
carbohydrates and fats are sometimes grouped together. They 
contain the same compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, 
only in different proportions. The one great difference is that 
the fats have a greater power than the carbohydrates, being 
rated at two and a quarter times the power of carbohydrates. 

Carbohydrates include the starches, sugars and gums, and 
like fats, they are burned to produce heat and energy. Carbo- 
hydrates as found in plants or grains are stored in a structure 
of cellulose, which con- 
stitutes the framework 
of the plant or the kernel 
of the grain. This frame- 
work or fibrous sub- 
stance is mostly indi- 
gestible, and in livestock 
feeding, especially poul- 
try feeding, it is spoken 
of as crude fiber. The 
digestible portions of the 
carbohydrates are called 
collectively Nitrogen- 
Free Extract. 

Avoid Fiber. — The 
poultryman aims to feed materials which have the greatest 
quantity of nitrogen-free extract, with the least amount of crude 
fiber, since fiber is not only indigestible, but it is voided and 
therefore of no food value. 

Protein nutrients are by far the most expensive portion of the 
fowl's diet. See Table IX. As a matter of fact, protein usually 
forms the basis upon which prices of feeds are determined. 
Wheat and its by-products rank first in popularity as sources of 
vegetable protein. Beef scrap, green cut bone and fish scrap are 
the most common sources of animal protein. Fowls require 




(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 129. — Where fowls are grown in large 
numbers on free range it is economy to. tend 
the houses with a team, preferably a low- 
wheeled truck, containing water-barrel, feed 
and so on. 



192 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

both animal and vegetable protein for best results, though chemic- 
ally there is very little difference between the two kinds. 

Most of the ash elements are found in sufficient quantities in 
the ordinary poultry feeds, except lime, which should be fur- 
nished in the form of oyster shells for laying hens, and in granu- 
lated bone for growing stock. Bran and alfalfa are both rich 
in ash, hence they are valuable feeds for chickens. 

Wheat is the most efficient single feed for poultry, because it 
furnishes the nearest thing to a perfectly balanced ration. When 
fed in conjunction with corn and oats as a scratch feed, supple- 
mented by a mash consisting of various meals, including a meat 
ingredient, properly compounded, wheat produces the best re- 
sults at the least cost. When fed by itself corn is too fattening. 
Oats is a fattening feed, too, in addition to which it has a high per- 
centage of fiber in the hulls, which is objectionable when fed in 
large quantities. Hulled oats or oatmeal, without this fiber, 
makes a splendid feed for young chicks. 



CHAPTER XV 
AVAILABLE GRAINS AND MEALS 

Fowls are omnivorous feeders, in that they eat both animal 
and vegetable foods. They require both kinds of food to do their 
best. Under domestic conditions, they might be classed as 
granivorous, or grain eaters, because they subsist mainly' on a 
grain diet. Their digestive tract is especially well adapted to 
the grinding and digesting of cereals, which the fowls relish. . 

Left to forage for themselves over a range that is abundant in 
plant life, the natural food of fowls would consist of grains, seeds, 
roots, grasses, worms and insects, tidbits of greens, berries and 
so on. The ration would comprise a wide variety of things, and 
in the main it would be wisely balanced. When kept in confine- 
ment the fowls must be given food that resembles this natural 
diet. It is impracticable to give them precisely the same articles 
which are found on free range, but these articles can be closely 
imitated, and the poultry keeper has a large list from which to 
choose. 

How Foods are Grouped. — For convenience we will divide the 
available foodstuffs into four groups, about as they are grouped 
in everyday practice: (i) grains; (2) meals and prepared foods, 
or mash constituents ; (3) green foods, or succulents ; (4) mineral 
and condimental foods. We will analyze them in this order, 
confining ourselves more or less to the commonplace products. 

Value of Wheat. — If it were necessary to limit the flock to a 
single article, wheat would probably give the best results, be- 
cause it is the nearest thing to a well-balanced ration. It is not 
perfectly balanced, however, and gives best results only when 
fed in conjunction with other products. Wheat contains more 
protein and ash than corn, and less fiber than oats. At the same 
13 193 



194 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Table XL — Composition of Various Grains and Their By-Products 
(The nutrients are given regardless of their digestibility. And it should 
be borne in mind that analyses of this kind vary somewhat according to 
different authorities.) 



Corn group 

Dent corn 

Flint corn 

Sweet corn 

Pop corn 

Corn meal 

Corn meal (sifted) 

Corn-and-cob-meal 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Hominy meal 

Wheat group 

Whole wheat 

Wheat screenings 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Low-grade flour 

Old bread 

Oat group 
Oats, whole or ground. . . . 

Clipped oats 

Oatmeal 

Rolled oats 

Buckwheat group 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat middlings. . . . 

Barley group 

Barley 

Barley meal 

Barley screenings 

Malt sprouts 

Other grains 
Linseed meal (old process) 

Cottonseed 

Cottonseed meal 

Rye 

Rice 

Sorghum seed 

Broom corn seed 

Millet seed 

Sunflower-seed 

Canada field peas 

Cowpeas 

Soy beans. 











Carbo- 


Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Fibre 


hy- 
drates 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


10.6 


i-5 


IO.3 


2.2 


70.4 


H-3 


i-4 


IO.5 


i-7 


70.I 


8.8 


i-9 


11.6 


2.8 


66.8 


10.7 


i-5 


11.6 


1.8 


69.2 


12.0 


1-3 


8-7 


2.1 


71.2 


12.0 


1.0 


8.9 


1-3 


72.0 


I5-I 


i-5 


8-5 


6.6 


64.8 


8.2 


•9 


29-3 


3-3 


46.5 


8-5 


1-7 


26.2 


7.2 


53-3 


11. 


2-5 


10.4 


4.2 


64.1 


10.5 


1.8 


11.9 


1.8 


71.9 


11. 6 


2.9 


12.5 


4-9 


65.1 


11.9 


5-8 


154 


9.0 


53-9 


12. 1 


3-3 


15.6 


4.6 


60.4 


12.4 


.6 


10.0 


•9 


75-0 


31.2 


Variable 


6.9 


Variable 


44.2 


11. 


3-0 


11.8 


9-5 


60.7 


11. 2 


2.8 


12.0 


74 


61.6 


7-9 


2.0 


14.7 


•9 


67.4 


8-5 


i-9 


15.0 


.6 


66.0 


12.6 


2.0 


10.0 


8-7 


64-5 


10.5 


3-i 


12.4 


31-9 


38.8 


13.2 


4-9 


28.9 


4.1 


41.9 


10.9 


2.4 


12.4 


2.7 


69.8 


11.9 


2.6 


10.5 


6-5 


66.3 


12.4 


3-6 


12.2 


7.6 


61.6 


10.2 


5-7 


23.2 


10.7 


48.5 


9.2 


5-7 


32.9 


8.9 


354 


10.2 


3-5 


I8.4 


23.2 


24.7 


8.2 


7.2 


42-3 


5-6 


23.6 


11.6 


i-9 


I0.6 


i-7 


72.5 


12.8 


•7 


7-5 


•5 


78.1 


12.8 


2.1 


9-i 


2.6 


69.8 


12.7 


34 


10.2 


7-i 


63.6 


14.0 


3-3 


11. 8 


9-5 


574 


8.6 


2.6 


16.3 


29.9 


21.4 


134 


2.4 


22.4 


6.4 


52.6 


14.8 


3-2 


20.8 


4.1 


55-7 • 


10.8 


4-7 


34-0 


4.8 


28.8 



Fat 



Per cent 

5-o 

5-o 
8.1 

5-2 
4-7 
4.8 

3-5 
11.8 

3-i 

7.8 

2.1 
3-0 

4.0 

4.0 

1.1 

•9 

5-0 
5-o 
7-i 
8.0 

2.2 

3-3 
7.0 

1.8 
2.2 
2.6 
i-7 

7-9 
19.9 

i3-i 
i-7 
4 
3-6 
3-0 
4.0 

21.2 
3-0 
1.4 

16.9 



WHEAT THE LEADING GRAIN 



195 



time it contains materially less digestible fat than corn, and 
slightly less nitrogen-free extract. 

Fowls fed on a pure wheat diet are subject to digestive dis- 
turbances. When fed on a mixture of wheat, corn and oats, these 
troubles are minimized. This mixture constitutes the bulk of 
so-called Scratch Feeds on the majority of poultry farms in this 
country. 




nt Station) 



Fig. 130. — Growing stock on alfalfa pasture. 



Cost of Wheat. — Considering the high cost of wheat, it is 
likely that too much importance has been laid upon it in respect 
to poultry feeding. Pound for pound, the by-products of wheat — 
bran and middlings — are more valuable than the whole grain, 
and they are very much less expensive. True, the whole grain 
of wheat has all the qualities — attractiveness of size, color, shape 
and texture — which go to make a palatable ration for fowls, 
and it should be used in the scratch feed by way of variety be- 



196 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



cause of this palatability ; but wheat need not be depended upon 
as a mainstay of the diet. Wheat is a better growing feed than 
a fattening feed, hence it is valuable in rearing young stock. It 
has been found that wheat gives a lighter color to the .yolks of 
eggs and to fat, and according to many packers, it imparts a 
redder color to the flesh, the lean meat, than does corn. 



Table XII. — Feeding Rations for Laying Hens Recommended by 

Poultry Department, Cornell University 

Whole-Grain Mixture Fed Morning and Afternoon in Litter 



By Weight, Winter By Measure, Winter By Weight, Summer By Measure, Summer 



60 lbs. wheat 
60 lbs. corn 
30 lbs. oats 
30 lbs. buckwheat 



32 qts. wheat 
36 qts. corn 
30 qts. oats 
20 qts. buckwheat 



60 lbs. wheat 
60 lbs. corn 
30 lbs. oats 



32 qts. wheat 
36 qts. corn 
30 qts. oats 



Dry Mash Fed in a Hopper, Open Afternoons Only 



By Weight, Winter and Summer 



By Measure, Winter and Summer 



60 lbs. corn meal 
60 lbs. wheat middlings 
30 lbs. wheat bran 
10 lbs. alfalfa meal 
10 lbs. oil meal 
50 lbs. beef scrap 
1 lb. salt 



57 qts. corn meal 
71 qts. wheat middlings 
57 qts. wheat bran 
20 qts. alfalfa meal 

8 qts. oil meal 
43 qts. beef scrap 
y* qt. salt 



"The fowls should eat about one-half as much mash by weight as whole 
grain. Regulate the proportion of grain and ground feed by giving a light 
feeding of grain in the morning and about all they will consume at the after- 
noon feeding (in time to find grain before dark). In the case of pullets or 
fowls in heavy laying, restrict both night and morning feeding to induce 
heavy eating of dry mash, especially in the case of hens. This ration should 
be supplemented with beets, cabbage, sprouted oats, green clover, or other 
succulent feed, unless running on grass-covered range. Grit, cracked oyster 
shell, and charcoal should be accessible at all times. Green feed should not 
be fed in a frozen condition. All feed and litter used should be strictly sweet, 
clean, and free from mustiness, mold, or decay. Serious losses frequently 
occur from disease, due to the fowls taking into their bodies, through their 
intestinal tract or lungs, the spores of molds." 

No Need for Best Wheat. — It is a mistake to assume that the 
best grades of milling wheat are the best for poultry. Plump 



POPULARITY OF CORN 



197 



wheat is slightly more palatable, but it has been shown that 
shrunken wheat, caused by frost or drought, contains a higher 
percentage of protein, therefore it is more economical as a stock 
feed. Frequently the poorer grades of wheat, which are not 
suitable for the best grades of flour, can be had at prices which 
are so low that they are cheaper than corn and oats. 

Musty, smutty and heated wheat should be carefully avoided, 
no matter how cheap they can be bought, because of the in- 
jurious effect they may have on the fowls' digestion. There is no 
objection to wheat 
screenings, however, 
which constitute the 
refuse or "screen- 
ings" from the bet- 
ter grades of wheat. 
The feeding value of 
screenings depends 
upon quality, and 
quality varies in each 
purchase. Screen- 
ings contain broken 
and shrunken wheat 
kernels, weed seeds, 
chaff and often con- 
siderable harmless 
trash. If the price 

is low enough, screenings can be fed to an advantage. The point 
to consider is the price and quality of the screenings in relation 
to the price of sound feeding wheat. 

Corn and its products are the principal sources of grain feed 
for poultry. It is the best relished of all the grains, it is easily 
digested, contains no poisonous substances, and except that it is 
too concentrated when fed alone, too fattening, it is an ideal 
ration. Corn has many advantages; it is attractive looking, 
free from shuck or husk, it is easily swallowed, and contains large 
amounts of oil and sugar which give it flavor and ease of diges- 




(Courlesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 131. — Fowls seldom derive sufficient exer- 
cise unless there are opportunities and incentives 
for scratching. 



198 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

tion. It satisfies the cravings of appetite and furnishes warmth. 
It is not the most desirable food for egg production and the de- 
velopment of lean meat, because it is deficient in protein. Corn 
is a fattening food, and it is most valuable in this respect.- When 
fed in conjunction with foods which are rich in protein, and some 
bulky material, such as green stuff or vegetables, it makes an 
indispensable article of diet. 

With the exception of flaxseed and sunflower seed, corn is the 
richest grain in carbohydrates and fat formers. As previously 
mentioned, it is a little low in protein, and quite low in mineral 
substances. To make up for this deficiency in mineral matter, 
oats are usually compounded with corn in poultry feeding. 
Barley is also used, though there is no better food for ash or 
mineral matter than wheat bran. 

Cheapness of Corn. — Ordinarily, corn is the cheapest food for 
poultry, not alone because of its price per bushel, but because 
fowls obtain the greatest amount of digestible material from corn. 
With oats at 40 cents a bushel, corn at 60 cents and wheat at 80 
cents, it has been found that the protein in wheat or oats costs 
practically fifty per cent more than the protein in corn. Simi- 
larly, the cost of fat in wheat is about twice as much as the cost 
of fat in corn. From every standpoint corn is the cheapest 
food, but since it does not contain the nutrients in the propor- 
tion in which they are required in the production of eggs and 
lean meat, it must be mixed with other products. 

The majority of farm flocks of poultry are maintained on an 
exclusive corn diet, largely because the corn is grown at home, 
and because it is not sold so readily as wheat. This practice is 
a great mistake, and cannot be condemned too harshly. It 
invariably results in a small egg yield, and frequently no eggs at 
all. Properly fed, corn is a most valuable feed — quite as valuable 
as wheat. This is especially true in America, where corn is 
plentiful, and under normal circumstances cheap. 

The value of oats as a poultry feed is determined largely by the 
percentage of fiber in the hulls. This fiber is the greatest ob- 
jection, because it is a tax on the fowls' digestion. Light oats, 



OATS AND BARLEY 199 

so called because of the large proportion of hull to kernel, which 
makes a bushel of oats weigh light, is not a desirable poultry feed. 
Heavy oats, with a smaller percentage of husk, are greatly rel- 
ished by chickens, and should form an important part of the 
diet. Hens are quick to recognize the quality of oats. They 
will refuse to eat oats which contain a great deal of shuck, seeming 
to know instinctively that it is as indigestible as straw. 

No grain varies so much in weight per bushel as oats, which, of 
course, is due to the variation in the proportion of husk to kernel. 
It will pay to get heavy oats, though the price is more, because 




(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
Fig. 132. — Chickens require an abundance of fresh drinking water at all times. 

of the waste in the hulls. Hulled oats or oatmeal is an excellent 
food for growing chicks. Some breeders maintain that oats con- 
tain an ingredient not found in other grains, which has a stimu- 
lating effect on the nerves and thereby promotes rapid growth. 
Whether or not there is any truth in this belief, the fact remains 
that there is no better food for baby chicks than pinhead oat- 
meal or hulled oats. It is expensive, but the results seem to 
warrant the additional expense. Ground oats are used ex- 
tensively in fattening poultry. 

Barley ranks between oats and corn as a growing and fattening 
feed. It contains less fat, fiber and ash than oats, but more 



200 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

protein and carbohydrates. It does not rate so high in digestible 
protein as wheat, and barley is not so palatable as either wheat, 
corn or oats; but it is a splendid ingredient for the scratch feed 
because of its variety. 

The husk and beard of barley are somewhat against it, though 
not so much as in oats. So long as the fowls will eat freely of it, 
barley can be fed in liberal quantities. In Europe barley oc- 
cupies the place filled by corn in America, in fact, it has much the 
same feeding value. The great demand for barley for brewing 
purposes tends to keep the price high. Malt sprouts and 
brewer's grains, which are the by-products of barley, are useful 
stock feeds, but because they are in such demand as dairy feed, 
little attention has been given to them as poultry feed, though 
they are a good source of succulent material. 

Buckwheat. — Strictly speaking, buckwheat is a poor poultry 
feed. It contains properties which supply heat and energy, but 
because of the black, woody hulls, which are both unappetizing 
and indigestible by reason of the fiber, fowls do not eat it readily. 
In fact, until the hens are accustomed to buckwheat, they are 
likely to ignore it completely. Compared with other grains, 
buckwheat cannot be called a rich food, nor an economical food. 
It has a lower percentage of digestible organic matter than most 
grains, and is low in mineral matter. The only excuse for feeding 
buckwheat is to add a little variety to the ration, but even this 
virtue is questionable because of its unattractiveness. 

Rye is even less of a success as a poultry feed than buckwheat. 
Though virtually the same as wheat in composition, appearance, 
size and color, rye is not relished by fowls. There is something 
about it which is distasteful, and if birds are compelled to eat it 
in grain form there is a tendency to create digestive trouble. On 
the other hand, sprouted rye is exceedingly palatable, and fowls 
do well on it. The fat of rye is said to be the indigestible portion 
of the grain, and apparently it has some medicinal quality or 
flavor which is objectionable. In view of these facts, it is poor 
economy to try and use rye grain as a poultry feed. 

Rice. — Though rice is reckoned among the available grains for 



RICE, PEAS, AND BEANS 



201 



poultry, it is used in very limited quantities. Even in the South, 
where it is grown, rice is not generally used, except as a chick 
feed, and then only in small quantities. The commercial chick 
feeds contain a small percentage of broken rice. Its value, how- 
ever, is questioned by most breeders. Chicks do not seem to 
care for it, and for this reason it is not generally recommended. 
Boiled rice is sometimes fed to chicks as a wet mash, and the water 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 133. — Feeding time in a fattening station. 



which is drained off the rice is cooled and given as drinking water. 
As a commercial proposition this is too troublesome. 

Field peas, cowpeas and Soy beans are three nitrogenous 
seeds which may be used to vary the ration, though it is not ad- 
visable to feed them to poultry unless they can be bought at a 
reasonable price. Usually they are scarce and correspondingly 
high in price. 

Kafir corn, milo maize, sorghum seeds and broom corn seeds 
may be added to the scratch grain ration to give variety. They 
can be made to take the place of corn, because they are pretty 



202 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



much the same in character. Fowls eat them with a relish. The 
one objection is cost; they are usually high in price, therefore 
prohibitive, except in small quantities. 

Millet is fairly reasonable in price, and is found in most of the 
commercial chick feeds. It has practically the same composi- 
tion as oats. Owing to 
an extremely hard shell, it 
is indigestible. There is a 
high percentage of fiber, 
which is against it as an 
economical feed. Because 
the seeds are small and 
brilliantly colored, little 
chicks are attracted to 
millet, and will eat it read- 
ily. This is accompanied 
by risks, since the bullet- 
like structure of the seeds 
resists the grinding action 
of the gizzard. Many 
breeders are opposed to 
the use of millet on this 
account. The writer dis- 
carded it long since. 

Sunflower seeds are 
recommended for the 
molting season, and for 
birds intended for exhi- 
bitions, because of the 
vegetable oil which im- 
parts a gloss to the plumage. They have a high fiber content 
(about 30 per cent) which renders them indigestible and wasteful. 
Then, too, sunflower seed is expensive. In the writer's opinion, 
it is not worthy of notice. The plumage can be stimulated by 
the use of cake meal (old process) , which is the residue from linseed 




{Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 134. — Feeding battery used in pack- 
ing nouses. Note troughs on the outside of 
the cages. 



FOWLS HAVE INTENSIVE ORGANISMS 



203 




(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 135. — Fowls with long, crow- 
like heads are usually poor feeders and 
do not make rapid gains. 



after the oil has been extracted. This oil meal contains valuable 

nutrients, and is reasonable in 

price. 

Every Process is Intensive. — 

Fowls have a higher tempera- 
ture, increased respiration, and 

a more rapid digestion than 

most other animals. Their 

young is brought into being very 

quickly; they mature in from 

five to nine months; and their 

life is limited to about five years. 

Thus, every function, process 

and phase of the fowl's existence 

may be called intensive or rapid. 

In many respects the fowl may 

be compared to a high-geared machine, which is delicate of oper- 
ation, but thoroughly reliable, 
providing the adjustments are 
properly maintained. 

We know that a low-geared 
machine can withstand more 
neglect than the fast-running, 
high-tensioned mechanism. In 
a similar way, the relation of 
food to bodily requirements is 
more exacting in fowls than in 
other animals of slower growth. 
Do not misconstrue this state- 
ment: Fowls do not require 
greater care than other animals. 
On the contrary, they require 
much less attention. But fowls 
must be provided with the 
means by which they can take 

care of themselves, and of which they are fully capable. This 




(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 136. — This bird's head is typi- 
cal of a good feeder, one that can be 
depended upon to make rapid gains 
in flesh. 



204 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



provision consists chiefly in giving the fowls access to the right 
sort of foodstuffs. 

As explained in a preceding chapter, poultry must be fed those 
products which yield certain elements, such as protein, fats and 
mineral substances, which are necessary to meet the daily de- 
mands of the body. Moreover, these elements must be fed in a 
mechanical condition which will render the greatest good at the 
least expense. Expense in this instance embraces both the 
poultryman's pocketbook and the fowls' health. 




(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
Fig- l 37- — The farm flock can be made to forage for the greater part of its 

keep. 

Exclusive Grain Diet. — Time was when poultry was fed al- 
most exclusively on whole grain. Such a diet was expensive and 
improperly balanced. Also, it was wasteful, because certain 
portions of whole grain were not necessary to a fowl's welfare. 
They were of greater value as human food. For example, wheat 
middlings and wheat bran are better poultry foods than wheat 
flour, whereas the latter is considered more desirable as human 
food. Therefore the logical thing is to mill and separate the 
whole grain. In recent years this has been done, with the result 



Table XIII. 



-Feeding Rations for Laying Hens Recommended by the 
New Jersey Station 
Dry Mash Mixture (Winter) 



Kind of Feed 




Quantity 


Pounds 


Quarts 




200 
200 
200 
100 
IOO 
IOO 
100 




380 




240 




200 




95 




80 




86 


Alfalfa (short cut) 


200 


Total 


• 1000 


1 28 1 


Nutritive Ratio, 1:3.02 

Dry Mash 


Mixture (Summer) 






Kind of Feed 


Quantity 


Pounds 


Quarts 






200 

IOO 

IOO 

50 

25 




380 




120 




100 




40 


Meat scrap (high grade) 


21 


Total 


475 


66l 



Nutritive Ratio, 1 : 3.22 

For Leghorns and other egg breeds the feed hoppers are kept open all day. 
For the heavier breeds, which are prone to put on too much fat, the hoppers 
are kept open in the afternoon only. 

Scratch Grain Mixture (Morning) Five Pounds to 100 Birds Fed in 

Deep Litter 





Kind of Feed 


Quantity 




Pounds 


Quarts 


Wheat 


100 
IOO 


53 
98 


Oats ... 




Total 


200 




151 



Nutritive Ratio, 1 : 6.6 

Scratch Grain Mixture (Evening) Ten Pounds to 100 Birds 





Kind of Feed 


Quantity 




Pounds 


Quarts 




200 
100 
IOO 
IOO 


I20 


Wheat 


53 
98 
66 


Oats. 


Buckwheat 






Total 


500 


337 



Nutritive Ratio, 1 : 7.8 

The above is intended for cold weather feeding. In the summer half the 
cracked corn is used, and barley is substituted for the buckwheat. 

205 



206 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

that we now have a valuable list of by-products, most of them 
meals, which are available as stock foods, at a much lower cost 
than the whole grain. 

Merits of Mash Feeding.— To-day, instead of feeding their 
flocks exclusively on whole or broken grain, practical poultry 
raisers feed about half grain and half meals. The grain feed, 
which consists of a mixture of grains, such as corn, wheat and 
oats, is termed the "scratch feed " ; the meals are mixed together 
in certain proportions and called a "mash." This mash is fed 
dry or moist, depending upon the object desired. Of late the 
dry mash has gained considerable favor over the wet mash, and 
largely because of the inconvenience in placing the wet mash be- 
fore the birds. It must be fed at regular intervals and in specific 
quantities, because if moist feed is allowed to stand for any length 
of time, it will spoil in hot weather and freeze in cold weather. 
A dry mash is always available ; it can be placed before the flocks 
in large quantities, providing the hoppers are suitable, and the 
mash remains sweet and wholesome until consumed. 

Table XIV 
At the Maine Experiment Station under Prof. Gowell the following quanti- 
ties of feed were consumed per hen in one year by a flock of Barred Plymouth 
Rocks, averaging 144 eggs each: 

Pounds 

Grain and mash 90.0 

Oyster shell 4.0 

Granulated bone 2.4 

Grit 2.0 

Charcoal 2.4 

Clover 10.0 

Forced Feeding. — Excellent results have been secured through 
mash feeding. It is particularly valuable in fattening, and in 
forced feeding for increased egg production. This is due to the 
fact that meals are digested more quickly than the whole grains, 
therefore the nourishment which they contain is more readily 
available for absorption. Dry mash feeding is the only method 
by which fowls can be made to consume large quantities of food, 
which are so essential to rapid development. 



ACTION OF THE GIZZARD 207 

The point to remember, however, is this, forced feeding must 
not be carried to the point where it affects and impairs stamina 
and health. In fattening poultry for market there is little need 
for caution in this respect, because the birds are killed before any 
ill effects are manifested. But in feeding laying stock, especially 
breeders, prolonged over-feeding is almost certain to result in 
weak offspring and a general deterioration in the vigor and pro- 
ductiveness of the flocks. 

On first thought, ground feed or meals would seem to be more 
digestible than whole grains, because, as stated above, the meals 
are more quickly digested than the grains. It does not follow, 
however, that the meals are more thoroughly digested, as we 
shall see. 

Gizzard. — Fowls are endowed with a powerful muscular organ 
— the gizzard, for the express purpose of grinding solid foods. 
The action of the gizzard is involuntary. If it is equipped with 
sufficient "molars" in the form of hard, sharp, angular grit, its 
grinding process is consistently thorough. 

Gastric Juice. — The crushing and grinding process is not the 
only function of the gizzard. The food is partially digested in 
this organ, and to accomplish this digestion the food must re- 
main in this part of the digestive tract for a certain length of 
time. It has been found that the gizzard secretes a gastric 
juice, which is one of the most powerful agents of digestion, 
especially in respect to digesting protein and in dissolving the 
mineral elements. Naturally, the harder the food the longer 
it is required for the gizzard to grind it, and the longer the food 
remains in the gizzard the greater is the' action of the gastric 
secretion. 

Sparing the Gizzard. — As might be supposed, meals pass 
through the gizzard much quicker than whole grains, and this 
spares the gizzard considerable work. In forced feeding it is 
found cheaper to do this work with power millstones. But the 
point to remember is this: If the gizzard is spared too much, it 
soon loses its efficiency, and thereafter the food will not be 
thoroughly digested, which is both a tax on the fowls' health and 



208 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

wasteful of food. In short, the fowls must be fed enough hard 
grain to maintain the gizzard and all other organs in their normal 
state. It is therefore considered good practice to feed from one- 
third to one-half ground feed. 

Table XV 
In a test at the Maine Experiment Station it was found that a flock of two 
thousand Barred Plymouth Rocks were raised to laying age on an average of 
the following quantities of feed per fowl: 

Pounds 

Grain and mash 28.0 

Granulated bone 0.75 

Oyster shells 0.5 

Grit 2.25 

Charcoal 0.5 

Total 32.00 

Controlling the Diet. — There is still another important point 
about mash feeding: The feeder is better able to control the 
flock's diet. This statement is easily explained. When whole 
or broken grain is fed, it is more good luck than good manage- 
ment if some hens do not eat more corn, others wheat, and others 
oats, or whatever are the ingredients. And since no one kind of 
grain is a complete ration, the error of this method is apparent. 

In a properly compounded, well-mixed mash, which has the 
exact proportion of protein, carbohydrates and mineral sub- 
stances required to preserve health and stimulate egg production, 
the hen has no selection. She simply gulps mouthfuls of the 
mash, and every mouthful has practically the same ingredients, 
consequently she is made to eat just what the feeder has pre- 
scribed. Furthermore, if the mash is accessible at all times, 
which is the generally accepted method of feeding it; the fowls 
soon learn that they can eat it at will, and this habit tends to 
eliminate gorging by the stronger birds, and under-feeding on 
the part of the weaker or more timid members of the flock. In 
other words, there is no mad rush for the mash hopper like there 
is for a periodical distribution of scratch feed. 

Mash Constituents. — The feeder has a wide list from which to 



AVAILABLE GROUND FEEDS 



209 



select the ingredients for a mash. We will commence with the 
by-products of wheat. 

Bran is probably the most commonly used, all-round stock 
food. It is the outer layer of the wheat kernel and is rich in 
mineral matter. By reason of its flaky nature, bran gives the 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
pig I3 g. — Chickens in feeding batteries, being fattened for market. 

mash a light, bulky texture, and this condition is preferred by 
fowls. Bran is fibrous and slightly laxative. It is compara- 
tively rich in nutrients, though its digestibility is rather low. 
Bran and corn meal comprise the bulk of most poultry mashes. 
As might be supposed, there is a wide variation in the quality 
of bran, which is due to the milling process — how thin the out- 
14 



210 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



side shuck of the wheat kernel is taken off and how much of the 
gluten is retained. The more gluten it contains the richer the 

bran is in protein. 

Table XVI 
Two Dry Mash Formulas Recommended by California Experiment Station 





Quarts 


Pounds 




Quarts 


Pounds 


Bran 


6.0 
0-5 
0.5 
0.8 
1.0 

i-5 
1.0 

0.5 


3-0 , 
0.5 
0.5 
1.0 

0.75 
2.25 

i-5 
1.0 


Bran , 


4.0 
1.0 

1.0 

2.0 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
o-5 




Middlings 

Linseed meal (o. p.) 

Gluten feed 

Ground, oats 

Corn meal 

Beef scrap 

Bone meal 


Alfalfa meal .... 

Corn meal 

Shorts 

Barley meal .... 
Ground beans . . 

Beef scrap 

Bone meal 


0.5 
i-5 
i-5 
1.1 
1.1 

0.5 
1.0 



The above rations are calculated for 100 hens a day, to be fed in conjunction 
with from 9 to 12 pounds of scratch grains and sufficient green stuffs. 

Middlings and Shorts.— In the center of the wheat kernel is 
the flour, which is largely starch. Between the flour and the outer 
shuck or bran is a layer of gluten, called middlings or shorts. 
Shorts are practically the same as middlings, except that a larger 
percentage of fine bran may be present in the former. As a rule 
middlings are ground finer than shorts and resemble a low-grade 
flour. Middlings are richer in carbohydrates and fats than bran; 
and lower in mineral matter and fiber, therefore more digestible. 
Middlings are heavy and form a compact mass, and for best 
results they should be mixed with a bulky feed, such as bran, 
mealed alfalfa or ground oats. 

Feeding Flour. — Some feed markets do not distinguish between 
middlings and shorts. Then again, there is only a slight dif- 
ference between middlings and low-grade feeding flour. The 
feeding flour resembles the patent grades of white flour intended 
for human consumption, and is richer in gluten than middlings. 

Corn meal, sometimes spoken of as regular feed meal, as the 
name implies, is simply the whole corn kernel ground fine, or 
it may be the siftings from cracked corn. It possesses virtually 
the same merits as the whole grain, and is used extensively for 
fattening purposes. 



CORN PRODUCTS 



211 



Corn-and-Cob Meal. — When the cob is ground with the corn 
the product is called corn-and-cob meal. No matter how fine 
the cob is reduced to a meal, it consists mainly of fiber, with low 
feeding value, which is objectionable in feeding poultry. A little 
corn-and-cob meal can be used in the mash if bulk is desired, but 
it should not be made to take the place of straight corn meal. 

Gluten Meal. — In the manufacture of starch the kernels of 
corn are separated into hulls or bran, gluten and starch. Gluten 
meal is therefore corn less the bran and starch. It is rich in fat 
and protein and highly concentrated. When fed in large quanti- 
ties it produces ill effects. To overcome this concentration, and 
to provide a market for the corn bran, manufacturers now mix 
the gluten meal with the bran and sell the mixture as gluten feed. 



Table XVII 

War Time Rations Recommended by Hare, of the South Carolina 

Experiment Station 



Dry Mash for Southern Breeders 



Pounds 

Corn meal 100 

Wheat middlings ioo 

Rice bran ioo 

Ground oats 200 

Velvet bean meal 100 

Cottonseed meal 100 

Salt 3.5 



Dry Mash for Western Breeders 



Pounds 

Corn meal 250 

Ground oats 200 

Wheat middlings 200 

Wheat bran 200 

Meat scrap 100 

Alfalfa meal 50 

Salt 5 



Gluten feed contains less fat and protein than gluten meal, and 
greater bulk, therefore it should be bought on a guaranteed 
analysis, depending upon its content of protein. Gluten feed 
and gluten meal are both palatable and digestible. They are 
valuable sources of protein, as will be observed, and are excellent 
egg producers. It is a mistake, however, to depend entirely 
upon this vegetable protein. Some animal protein is necessary 
in the mash, such as bone meal or meat scrap. 

Hominy meal or hominy chop is still another valuable by-prod- 
uct of corn, useful as a poultry feed, but not so generally used 



212 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

because of the limited supply. It consists of the hull, germ and 
portions of the starch cells — the residue from the process of 
making hulled corn or hominy. It is similar to gluten and may 
be used in about the same way. 

Ground oats, as the name suggests, is simply the whole oats 
ground fine. The fiber is not reduced in any way, though it is 
rendered more palatable. In buying ground oats care should be 
taken that there is not an excess of hulls, since unreliable manu- 
facturers sometimes use a very light or poor grade of oats for this 
feed. Ground oats are useful in all mashes, but because of the 
high percentage of fiber, they must be used judiciously. For ex- 
ample, it would be a mistake to compound a mash having large 
quantities of mealed alfalfa, ground oats and bran, because all 
three have large percentages of fiber, whereas the fiber content 
in poultry feeds should be kept as low as possible. 

Ground barley, sometimes called barley meal, has pretty much 
the same value as the whole grain. Like ground oats, it must be 
used carefully because of the hulls. It is not a common feed in 
this country. Dried brewers' grains, a by-product of barley 
from the breweries, is a valuable addition to the mash, rich in 
fat and protein, and used about the same as corn meal and wheat 
middlings. It is more widely used as a dairy feed than for 
poultry. 

Buckwheat bran and middlings, which are the by-products of 
buckwheat flour, are not particularly desirable as a poultry feed 
because of the large percentage of indigestible matter. The 
middlings are sometimes used in fattening poultry for slaughter, 
especially where white flesh is desired. 

Cottonseed meal, a by-product from the manufacture of cotton- 
seed oil from cotton seed, is thought by some to be a substitute 
for meat scrap. Fowls do not take kindly to it, however, and the 
general opinion among poultry feeders is that it is not a desirable 
feed. The consensus of opinion is that cottonseed meal should 
be used with extreme caution, or not at all. 

Oil meal, or linseed meal, a by-product of the manufacture 
of linseed oil from flaxseed, is rich in protein and fat, and a valu- 



W 1 JRSflf 




213 



214 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

able feed for molting fowls. It is exceedingly laxative, however, 
and because of this tendency it must be fed sparingly. Oil 
meal contains about three times as much protein as wheat or 
oats, and about five times the protein of rice. It is one' of the 
richest foods available for poultry, fairly reasonable in price, 
and it should find a place in all mashes for mature stock; but 
because of its concentrated nature, oil meal should not form over 
five per cent of the ration. 

Old process oil meal, or 0. P. cake meal, are other names given 
to this product. In the old process of manufacturing linseed 
oil the flaxseed is crushed and the oil extracted by great pressure. 
In the newer methods the oil is dissolved by means of naptha. 
The old process meal is best, because it contains more oil, which 
stimulates the growth of feathers, and gives the plumage a glossy 
appearance, so much desired by fanciers. When moist, oil meal 
is very sticky, and this quality tends to thicken or gum the mash. 
It is therefore objectionable in wet mashes. 



CHAPTER XVI 
ANIMAL AND GREEN FOODS 

Animal Protein. — A controversy has existed for some time over 
the relative merits of vegetable protein and animal protein. 
From the chemist's standpoint they may be practically the same; 
but not so from the fowls' point of view, which is the all-impor- 
tant angle for consideration. We cannot escape the fact that 
chickens are scavengers. They are meat eaters, naturally. 
Witness their eagerness for worms and insects, or for dead ani- 
mal matter, if they find it. Apparently they crave meat in some 
form, hence it behooves the feeder to furnish it. 

Important feeding experiments have shown that protein and 
fats are more digestible when supplied from animal sources than 
from vegetable sources. Chicks and ducklings fed on rations 
containing animal food consume greater quantities of food and 
make faster gains in growth. Pullets are brought to maturity, 
and older hens lay more eggs when fed animal protein. It might 
be said that animal food is essential to economical production — 
an absolute necessity. No other food constituent stimulates 
the ovaries into activity in such a brief space of time. Because 
of this stimulation, however, animal foods must be used judi- 
ciously or ill effects will result. 

Meat Scrap. — There are several sources of animal food, though 
meat scrap, otherwise known as beef scrap, poultry meat, ani- 
mal meal and similar names, is unquestionably the most widely 
used. It consists of meat trimmings from slaughter houses and 
butcher shops, including considerable bone, which are cooked 
under steam pressure to render out most of the fat, and then dried 
and ground to different degrees of fineness. The cooking and 
curing process, if properly done, also sterilizes the product, 

215 



216 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



thereby destroying any bacteria which might prove harmful to 
the fowls. 

Guaranteed Analysis. — In the cheaper grades of meat scrap 
the product is not so carefully purified, and in some instances it is 
treated with acid, which is injurious. These grades should be 
avoided. In no other form of food is it so essential to use the 
best grades as in meat scrap. And usually the best grades are 
the cheapest in the long run, because they are almost certain to 




{Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 140. — Spading and turning over the soil not only keeps the yards sani- 
tary, but it affords worms and insect life for the fowls. 



contain higher percentages of protein, which is the sole reason 
for buying this sort of food. High-grade scrap will contain from 
50 to 60 per cent protein, the low grades from 25 to 40 per cent. 
Obviously the price should be based on a guaranteed analysis. 

Testing Meat. — The appearance of meat scrap will go far in 
convincing the purchaser as to its quality. To test it, pour 
scalding water over a sample, and if it continues to smell sweet, 
the chances are it is all right. If it gives off a putrid odor — be- 
ware. Then examine it in a dry state: If it seems to have large 



POULTRY MEAT 217 

quantities of hair, horn and hoof, it is not desirable. Particles 
of horn and hoof resemble bits of brown glass. 

Tankage, dried blood and kindred packing-house by-products, 
though suitable for hog feeding, are not relished by poultry. 
They are rich in nitrogen, but not capable of digestion by fowls. 
Shun them. 

Green cut bone is one of the most palatable foods of animal 
origin, and also one of the most forcing foods for egg production. 
It must be fed sweet by all means, which renders it a difficult 
food to handle on a large scale, especially in the summer time. 
The practice is to collect the bones, together with meat trimmings, 
from nearby butcher shops, and grind them at home by means of 
a power bone cutter. The ground bone and mangled bits of 
meat which cling to the bone are then fed separately or mixed 
with a little dry mash. 

Green cut bone heats and spoils very quickly, even in cold 
weather, unless it is spread out so that the air can circulate freely 
through it. If fed in a heated condition it is almost certain to 
develop diarrhea and kindred troubles. It is laxative at best, 
therefore it is not a good food for young chickens. When given 
to laying stock to assist egg production, green bone should not 
comprise more than ten per cent of the ration. Excessive use of 
such stimulating food is a serious tax on the liver, and brings 
about symptoms similar to gout in man. Very few egg farms of 
any size have the facilities to feed green bone, consequently they 
depend upon the commercial forms of meat scrap, which can be 
kept indefinitely in any climate, providing they are stored in a 
dry place, and are not allowed to heat. 

Granulated bone, or bone meal, which is a finer grinding of 
the bones, are both excellent foods for poultry, and especially 
for young stock, since they are valuable sources of both protein 
and mineral substances. This product is free from meat. The 
raw bones are dried, then ground to a meal. The best way to 
feed it is in the mash. It has no laxative properties to speak of, 
and fowls relish it. From five to ten per cent of bone meal 
should enter all mashes for chicks of all ages. 



218 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Fish scrap corresponds to meat scrap in many respects, and 
in some localities it is extensively used. The great difficulty 
with it is that it is likely to impart a fishy flavor to the eggs and 
flesh. This is due to the oil. In the best grades, wherein this 
oil is practically all removed, fish scrap makes a. valuable substi- 
tute for meat scrap, and in most cases it it much cheaper than the 
latter. 

Table XVIII. — Composition of Different Animal Foods 



Meat scrap (high grade) . 
Meat scrap (low grade) . 

Pork scrap 

Ground bone (dry) 

Green cut bone 

Animal meal 

Blood meal 

Dried blood 

Fresh fish 

Fish scrap (variable) . . . . 
Clams and other shell fish 

vVhole milk 

Skim milk 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Cheese 

Granulated milk 











Carbo- 


Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Fiber 


hy- 
drates 


Per 


Per 




Per 


Per 


cent 


cent 


Per cent 


cent 


cent 


IO.70 


4.IO 


60.20 






15.40 


2.50 


45.OO 






II.O 


2.2 


55-o 






8.I9 


56.95 


31-36 






38.94 


26.12 


20.37 






4.9O 


42.65 


30.45 


3-30 


IO.32 


IO.61 


4-65 


75-69 


1.28 


I.46 


6.70 


6.60 


65.10 




5-30 


44.O 


I. OO 


10.50 


42.OO 




5-IO 


2-8 


34-0-50 






34-10 


2.3O 


6.00 


55-oo 


2.00 


87.2 


.6 


3-6 




4-9 


90.6 


•7 


3-i 




5-3 


90.1 


•7 


4.0 




4.0 


93-8 


•4 


.6 




5-i 


40.6 


3-4 


23-7 




i-7 


28.5 


3-6 


13-7 




511 



Per 

cent 

25.OO 

37.IO 

31-8 

3-50 

II.67 

8.38 

7. II 

16.30 

2.50 

17.O 

.60 

3-7 

■3 
1.2 

.1 

30.6 

3-i 



Milk albumen, a by-product from the manufacture of milk 
sugar, is a good source of animal protein, but in the main it is 
too expensive for general use as a poultry food. Some breeders 
use it for their chicks. It is largely casein and lime, ground to a 
meal, and contains no crude fiber. 

Granulated milk is another product of this kind, except that 
it is whole milk evaporated and crystallized. Sometimes it is 
spoken of as powdered milk. It is useful for chick feeding for 
the first few weeks, but its cost is high, therefore prohibitive for 
general use. 



VIRTUES OF MILK 



219 



Milk in any form — fresh, sour, skimmed or buttermilk — is a 
wholesome feed for all forms of livestock, and should be used 
wherever possible in regular quantities. See Fig. 141. It is 





Chicks fed corn and green clover Chicks fed wheat and green clover 




Chicks fed corn, green clover and milk 

Fig. 141. — Experiment illustrating the benefit of milk in the chicks' diet. All 
three lots are the same age. (Wisconsin Experiment Station.) 



palatable, aids digestion, carries a high nitrogenous content, and 
the presence of lactic acid tends to correct bowel troubles and re- 
duces the spread of white diarrhea. Fowls will consume large 
quantities of it with the greatest relish. 



220 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Clean Fountains. — As previously mentioned, milk may be fed 
sweet or sour, but wherever possible it should be given one way 
or the other, and not alternated. To change it about constantly 
sometimes results in digestive disorders. Milk is given to fowls 
in drinking fountains, or it may be used to moisten the mash. 
When given to drink, the vessels must be scalded at regular 
periods, otherwise the milk is likely to become putrefied, espe- 
cially in warm weather, which is equivalent to putrid meat, and 
is injurious, resulting in limberneck and similar troubles. 

Milk whey, a by-product from the manufacture of cheese, 
is not so valuable as the other forms of milk, but it may be used 
whenever it can be obtained conveniently. It is relished by 
poultry. 

Table XIX. — The Following Feeding Formulas Were Used in Four 
Laying Competitions at Storrs, Connecticut 

Scratch Grains Dry Mash 

Pounds Pounds 

Cracked corn 60 Wheat bran 200 

Wheat 60 Corn meal 100 

Heavy oats 40 Gluten feed 100 

Barley 20 Ground oats 100 

Kafir corn 10 Middlings 75 

Buckwheat 10 Beef scrap 60 

Coarse beef scrap 10 Low grade flour 25 

In the fifth contest the formulas were simplified, as follows: 

Scratch Grains Dry Mash 

Pounds Pounds 

Wheat 100 Wheat bran 100 

Cracked corn 100 Corn meal 100 

Ground oats 100 

Middlings 100 

Fish scrap 50 

Beef scrap 50 

Salt adds to the palatability of the fowl's diet the same as it 
does for human food, also it assists digestion; but it must be 
used with more or less caution. Too much salt will result in 
diarrhea, while excessive quantities will prove fatal in very short 
order. Authorities recommend the use of four ounces of salt 
to each hundred mature fowls, and none to stock under ten weeks 
of age. 



CONDIMENTAL FOODS 221 

Ground salt, or the kind used in the preparation of human food, 
is best. It should be well distributed through the dry mash. If 
wet mashes are used, the salt should be dissolved in the water 
used to moisten the mash. Avoid rock or coarsely granulated 
salt, because the fowls are likely to mistake it for grit, in which 
event they will eat excessive quantities, and perhaps die. In 
most cases where fowls have died from salt it was attributed to 
this mistake. The writer was once called in by a neighbor who 
lost several hens suddenly, and on examination it was found that 
an ice-cream tub had been dumped near the kitchen door, and 
the hens had devoured most of the rock salt used in connection 
with the ice around the cream container. 

Condiments, such as Cayenne pepper, should be used very 
sparingly, if used at all. By some they are severely condemned; 
others claim increased production with no ill effects. Opinion 
is divided on the subject, though one's common sense dictates 
that if certain elements are highly stimulating, there must follow 
a corresponding reaction. 

Condiments should be given in moderation, for the purpose of 
seasoning the food about as would be desired by the human 
taste. This adds palatability to the ration and increases the fowls' 
appetites. With increased appetite more food is consumed, 
which is the sort of stimulation to be sought, not the direct action 
of the condiments themselves. Ground mustard or mustard 
bran and some of the reliable poultry regulators are to be recom- 
mended. 

Charcoal is a very necessary part of the bill-of-fare. It is 
not a condiment, and strictly speaking, it is not a food. It is 
given for its effect as an absorbent and intestinal corrective. It 
has a marked influence on gases, impurities and acids, relieves 
sour stomach and indigestion, and generally sweetens the whole 
of the inner workings. It is thought to be a laxative when eaten 
in large quantities, and for this reason many breeders are opposed 
to giving charcoal to little chicks. The writer has never ex- 
perienced such trouble. Some fowls do not take kindly to char- 
coal. The best plan is to keep it before the birds at all times in a 



222 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



separate hopper, the same as grit and oyster shells, or to mix it 
with the dry mash. Granulated charcoal is a commercial article, 
usually sold in three grades, coarse, medium and fine. 

Shredded alfalfa, or mealed alfalfa, which is finely .ground 
alfalfa hay, makes an excellent mash constituent, providing the 
quality is good. It is high in protein, ash and fat, resembling 
wheat bran in this respect. Moreover, it contains a great deal 




(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig. 142. — Complete equipment for chicks on range: colony house, feed hopper 

and water-barrel. 



of fiber, like bran, which is the worst feature about it as a poultry 
food. 

If manufacturers would only use the leaves of the alfalfa in 
the preparation of mealed alfalfa for poultry, instead of including 
the stalks, which have very little feeding value for fowls, this 
product would find much greater favor. Another objection is 
found in the susceptibility to adulteration. Timothy and other 
grasses are sometimes used as fillers. 

It is not advisable to use more than fifteen per cent of alfalfa 
in the mash, and then only as a substitute for bran or ground 



BEET PULP AND PEAS 223 

oats. If bran, ground oats and alfalfa are to_ be included, their 
combined total should not exceed twenty-five per cent of the 
ration. 

Short-cut clover and clover meal are very similar to the alfalfa 
products, and are used in about the same way. If anything, the 
clover is richer in ash, protein and carbohydrates, with a trifle 
less fiber; but it is not so attractive looking as alfalfa in a dry 
state. Alfalfa is a bright green and has the true alfalfa smell, 
whereas the clover is brown and not so volatile. 

Cut clover or finely shredded alfalfa soaked in boiling water 
or steamed over night, and fed separately or with a little mash, 
makes a good substitute for green food in the winter months. 
They could hardly be termed succulent food, however, any more 
than they contain considerable moisture. 

Dried beet pulp, shredded, a by-product of the sugar-beet in- 
dustry, and dried green cracked peas are two other substitutes 
for green food. Either one may be fed to advantage, and a com- 
bination of the two makes an ideal ration. It is appetizing in 
appearance, highly nutritious, a bulky food, comparatively in- 
expensive, and one that has given satisfactory results for a num- 
ber of years. Most feed dealers carry these products in stock, 
or they will order them for a customer. The best pulp is used 
extensively as a dairy food, and is rich in carbohydrates. It 
contains considerable fiber. 

To prepare this mixture, put equal parts of the pulp and peas 
into a tub or other receptacle, and add about three times their 
volume of water. Allow them to soak over night, and they will 
absorb all the water and swell to three or four times their original 
bulk. Before feeding next morning, loosen the mass from its 
compact state by turning it over a couple of times with a fork, 
and then place it before the fowls in troughs or hoppers. 

If the fowls do not eat freely of the mixture at first, it is be- 
cause they are not accustomed to it. To overcome this hesitancy 
mix some middlings or the regular dry mash with the pulp. This 
will give it a more familiar smell and appearance, and in a short 
time the birds will take to it readily. 



224 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Importance of Succulence. — Green foods are likely to be re- 
garded more as an accessory to the fowl's bill-of-fare than an 
essential requirement. This notion is a mistake. Greenstuffs, 
sometimes spoken of as succulents, are just as important as 
grains, meals and animal foods — not so much from the stand- 
point of nutrition, because in this respect they are far below grain, 




(Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
Fig. 143. — Gathering greenstuffs for the fowls. 



rather because of their medicinal and hygienic value. Greens 
act as a tonic. They tone the system; counteract the evils of 
the more concentrated foods, and assist in their assimilation. 
Besides, they do furnish some nutrients, especially the mineral 
elements; also they contribute water. 

The human taste craves lettuce, celery, water-cress and other 
crisp greens, not so much for their food value, but because of their 



GREEN FOODS 



225 



beneficial effect on the system. If we tried to sustain ourselves 
on lettuce and celery alone, we would fail, because they do not 
contain sufficient nourishment. On the contrary, if we tried to 
sustain ourselves without greens of any kind, we would fail also, 
because the more concentrated foods would soon reduce our 
systems to a break-down. The same condition applies to poultry. 



Table XX. — Composition of Green Foods 



Feed 



Water 



Protein 



Fiber 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 



Grasses 

Alfalfa (green) 

Alfalfa (dry) 

Clover (green) 

Clover (dry) 

Lawn clippings (green) 
Lawn clippings (dry) . 

Barley (green) 

Peas and oats (green) . 
Roots 

Potatoes (white) 

Potatoes (sweet) 

Beets (mangel) 

Beets (sugar) 

Beet pulp (dry) 

Beet pulp (wet) 

Onions 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Artichokes 

Leaves 

Cabbage 

Lettuce 

Beet tops 

Rape 

Onion tops 

Chard (Swiss) 



Per 
80 
II 
70 
IO 
76 

15 

76 
80 

78, 

71 

90 



cent 
.OO 
.90 
.80 
OO 
40 

30 
OO 

50 

9 

1 

9 

•4 
.0 



87. 

90 

88. 
80. 

90 
95 



Per cent 
I.80 

7-13 
2.IO 
8.IO 
2.40 

5-50 
7-30 

I.74 

I.O 
1.0 

I.I 

•9 
54 

.6 

.6 

.8 
1.0 
1.0 

1-4 

.8 
2.4 
2.0 
1.1 
2.4 



Per cent 
4.90 

14.12 
4.4O 

16.32 
2.3O 
7.40 
2.71 
2.9O 

2.1 

1.6 

1.4 

1.8 
9-5 
•9 
1.4 
1.1 
1.1 
2-5 

3-8 
1.6 

4.4 
3-4 
3-9 
4.4 



Per cent 
4.70 



15 



Per cent 

7.9c 
37-34 

13-50 

45-99 

13.80 

42.10 

7.00 



17-3 
24.6 

5-5 

9.8 

61.3 

6-3 
9.4 
6.2 
7.6 
15-5 

2.4 
1.0 
2.6 

2-3 
.8 

2-5 



Per cent 
.07 
2.42 
1. 10 

i-75 

1. 00 

2.50 

.09 

.c6 

0.1 

•4 
.2 
.1 
•4 ' 

•3 
.2 

•4 
.2 

•4 

.2 

2.2 

•5 
.2 

•4 



Fowls are vegetable eaters, and they are grazers, though not 
to the same extent as geese and ducks. They like to forage, 
which affords much needed exercise as well as tidbits of greens. 
On the majority of egg farms, and the same thing is true of most 
of the backyard flocks, there is not sufficient range to maintain 
15 



226 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



abundant pasture. It takes a large acreage of land to support 
any considerable number of birds on the natural vegetation, be- 
cause the fowls soon destroy it. Result, bare yards and runs, 
in which event it becomes necessary to supply the greens in a 
more or less artificial manner. 

When the poultry raiser's yards become bare, and this erst- 
while plant food is not supplemented from the outside, his venture 
is in a fair way to quit the business. He may not be aware of 
this fact, but it is true nevertheless. Fowls will not thrive pro- 




(Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 

Fig. 144. — Relation of ordinary feed oats to sprouted oats. The pile on the 
left was sprouted from the same quantity as shown in the right-hand pile. 



fitably without greenstuffs of some kind. Their eggs are likely 
to be weak and to lack fertility. Weak eggs mean poor hatches 
and chicks with weakened constitutions, than which nothing is 
more difficult to combat in the brooder. It is unreasonable to 
expect strong, productive pullets from chicks with impaired 
stamina, hence in a few generations the vigor and productive- 
ness of the flock is reduced to an unprofitable level. The next 
step is failure. 

Failure to appreciate the importance of green food is not so 
much ignorance as indifference. Most poultry keepers are 



AVOID BARE YARDS 227 

aware of the benefits of succulence, but because it is the most 
troublesome part of the ration to supply, particularly in winter, 
there is a tendency to side-step it — to take chances on getting 
by without it. As cold weather approaches the fowls receive 
less and less green food, finally none at all, until the advent of 
spring, when the problem is temporarily solved by the sprouting 
of a new crop of grass and weeds. 

There can be no doubt as to the trouble involved in supplying 
greenstuffs, especially for large flocks. You can buy grains 
and meals and most of the other supplies in sacks, and there is 
very little care required to store them. But not so with green- 
stuffs. Plant food involves farming; the crops must be sowed, 
cultivated and harvested, and then carefully stored for the 
winter so that they will not freeze. The alternatives are to 
sprout oats in rotation, or to purchase plant food in the form of 
vegetables, such as cabbage, turnips and small potatoes, from 
nearby growers. 

Table XXI. — Feeding Rations for Laying Hens Recommended by In- 
diana Experiment Station 

Scratch Grains Dry Mash 

Pounds Pounds 

Cracked corn 10 Wheat bran 5 

Wheat 10 Middlings 5 

Oats 5 Meat scrap 3.5 

A light feeding of the scratch grains is given in the morning, and all the 
birds will clean up at night. Dry mash is kept before the light breeds all the 
time, and for the heavier breeds from noon on. Succulent food is supplied in 
the form of sprouted oats, cabbage or mangels. The following variations are 
suggested: (1) Replace the beef scrap with 62 pounds of skim milk; (2) drop 
the wheat and increase the corn and oats; (3)' give fowls abundant range and 
cut down a portion of the mash. 

The poultryman has a wide list of plants from which to derive 
greenstuffs, and a great number of ways of placing them before 
the fowls. Practically speaking, almost anything that has 
tender, juicy foliage, fruit or roots is suitable, from the grasses 
to beets — mangel wurtzels. The point to bear in mind is, that 
the product must be appetizing and palatable, or made so. 

Clover and alfalfa pasturage are considered to be the finest 
sources of greenstuffs. Rye is another excellent crop, especially 



228 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



for a fall planting, because it will germinate in cold weather, 
following which the sprouts are available in the early spring, 
weeks ahead of any other crop, except wheat, which can be used 
for the same purpose. 

Oats and peas sown together, with a thin sprinkling of clover 
and rape seed, make a good planting for poultry pasture. The 
oats and peas furnish the first growth of greens, and serve to 
protect the more delicate shoots of the clover and rape. The 
. latter will grow late into the 

fall, and so long as the crown 
of the rape plants is not de- 
stroyed, they will continue to 
bear foliage in abundance, 
which is much relished by 
fowls of all ages. 

If fowls are not accustomed 
to unlimited quantities of 
green food, it must be fed with 
more or less caution at first, 
especially rye pasture, or the 
birds are likely to develop a 
mild form of diarrhea. 

Turning fowls out on pas- 
ture is the easiest way to fur- 
nish greens, but unless the 
pasture is given an oppor- 
tunity to obtain a strong 
growth, the birds will quickly 
destroy it. To overcome this, 
the practice is to have two or more yards, and to use them 
successively. Or the greenstuff s can be cut with a scythe or 
mower, raked up and fed to the birds inside their houses. If this 
method is followed, the greens must be fed in small quantities, 
once or twice a day, to keep them fresh. As soon as they wilt 
they are not eaten with any degree of relish. 

The best grasses to sow for permanent poultry pasture are 




{Courtesy U . S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Fig. 145. — Commercial fattening plant, 
well lighted and ventilated. 



GRASSES FOR PASTURE 229 

blue grass, red top, low, Dutch or white clover. Other seeds, 
such as red clover, timothy, alsike and alfalfa, make very good 
hay, but they are not durable enough for poultry. They are 
soon killed off. 

Swiss chard and lettuce are useful for feeding baby chicks in 
the early spring. They should be cut into short lengths and fed 
in small quantities to keep them fresh. 

Onion tops and sliced onions are both excellent for chicks. If 
you have a brood which is inclined to mope around, out of sorts, 
so to speak, and you want to put a little "pep" into the chicks, 
try a few onions sliced fine. In short order the chicks will be 
tussling and tugging at the slices of onion as though they were 
bugs or worms. 

Onions are very good for mature stock, too, except that when 
fed in large quantities to laying hens they are apt to impart the 
flavor of the onion to the eggs. 

Beets — mangel wurtzels — is the best all-round vegetable for 
poultry. They are easy to grow, and keep well for winter feed- 
ing. From twenty to twenty-five pounds per day per hundred 
hens is about the correct ration. Shredding the beets by means 
of a root cutter is the best way to feed them; or they may be cut 
into large pieces and spiked on nails in the poultry houses. Sus- 
pending the halved beets in a fish net is another way to place this 
sort of food before fowls. The idea is to keep the beets from being 
tracked around in the dirt and litter. In cold weather the middle 
of the day is the only time to feed succulent food, so that it will 
not freeze and become unpalatable. 

Table XXII. — War-Time Rations for Laying Hens Recommended by 
the American Egg Laying Contest 

Scratch Grains Dry Mash 

Pounds Pounds 

Cracked corn 400 Wheat bran 150 

Middlings 150 

Beef scrap 100 

Charcoal 4 

Fine salt 3 

Cabbage is relished by fowls, though it should be fed in modera- 
tion, lest it impart an objectionable flavor to the eggs. It is 



230 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



somewhat difficult to store in winter, and not always available 
at an economical price. If the cabbage is grown at home, a good 
plan for its storage is to take up the heads with the roots, then 
turn a fairly deep furrow, place the cabbages head downward in 




(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 146. — Home-made rack for sprouting oats. Note the seven trays, one for 
each day in the week, grown in rotation. 



this furrow, cover them over with soil, allowing the rootsto stick 
above ground, whence they can be taken up as desired. 

So much of the cabbage grown for market is not saleable, due 
to small, misshapen and loosely headed specimens, that it is 



SPROUTED OATS 231 

possible for the poultry keeper to bargain with farmers for this 
condemned cabbage at a low price. The writer has bought large 
quantities of cabbage for fifty cents a load, and, of course, I fur- 
nished the labor of picking and hauling. In this way cabbage 
is a very cheap food. 

Undersized potatoes and similar vegetables are often pro- 
curable at low prices, and make good succulent food for winter 
use. Hard vegetables, like potatoes and turnips, should be 
boiled first, or they will not be eaten in large quantities. Cook 
them in their skins, and when soft crush them slightly and mix 
with a little dry mash. Fed warm, this is a splendid food for 
cold mornings. 

Waste fruits, pumpkins, melons and other garden products 
are available for poultry. Fowls eat them with the greatest 
avidity. The main consideration is to try and feed them in 
regular quantities, rather than in large doses some days and none 
at other times. And always feed them in troughs or hoppers to 
keep them as clean as possible. 

Sprouted oats make a convenient form of raising greenstuff 
in limited quarters, or during the winter months when plants 
cannot be grown outdoors. Chickens eat them greedily. They 
are commonly used and possess unquestioned merits. Some 
writers refer to them as a cheap food, and they have been widely 
advertised as the secret of feed at fifteen cents per bushel. This 
idea is a delusion. Oats are oats, whether you feed them as dry 
hard grains or in the form of sprouts. Sprouting changes the 
form of the feed and increases the bulk by means of water, but 
it does not add nutriment. According to some authorities, 
sprouted oats contain about 76 per cent water, 3.2 per cent pro- 
tein, 0.8 per cent ash, 16.3 per cent carbohydrates, 1.3 per cent 
fat and 2.5 per cent fiber. 

Warmth and moisture are the essential conditions for sprouting 
oats. Use a good grade of heavy feed oats, natural oats, not 
bleached or clipped oats. Soak them in a pail of warm water 
for about forty-eight hours, and then spread them out on trays 
to a thickness of about an inch. At this time the excess water is 



232 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

drained off, but each day the oats must be sprinkled and kept 
as moist as possible without having the oats actually immersed 
in water. 

A good plan is to cover the oats with pieces of burlap, some- 
thing to act as a blanket and conserve the moisture. For the 
first couple of days, or until there is danger of breaking the roots 
and sprouts, the oats are stirred about on the trays. In about a 
week they are ready for feeding; the sprouts will be two or three 
inches long, and the roots will be so closely interwoven that the 
whole tray of oats can be picked up in a mass or cake. 

Mould. — The one difficulty in sprouting oats is mould. To 
prevent it the oats should be treated with a solution of formalin. 
In the pail of water in which the oats are first soaked, add about 
ten drops of formalin. All trays and other fixtures should be 
sprayed with a solution of formalin at regular intervals. 

There are numerous types of oat-sprouting cabinets on the 
market, heated by kerosene lamps, which are convenient of 
operation. Similar appliances are easily contrived by anyone 
who is mechanically inclined. 

Mineral Matter. — As will be noted from the analyses of dif- 
ferent grains and feeds, practically all foodstuffs contain a cer- 
tain percentage of mineral substances or ash. Mineral matter 
may be said to determine the efficiency of a ration, in that it 
increases the digestibility of all the other nutrients, especially 
protein. Besides, it is required for the upbuilding of bone and 
in the formation of egg shells, not to mention many other uses 
throughout the body. 

Mineral matter should be supplied in two forms: that which 
is quickly available as such; and in a hard form, not so easily 
assimilable, but for use in the gizzard for the purpose of crushing 
and grinding the other feeds. A diet consisting of a well-bal- 
anced mash, scratch feed and an abundance of green food will 
supply the first-named sort of mineral matter, especially if the 
mash contains either granulated bone, bone meal or meat scrap. 
The second kind of mineral matter, the hard variety, is supplied 




233 



234 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

by grit and oyster shells. No pen of poultry should be without 
these two products. 

Oyster shells, also other kinds of sea shells, crushed to small 
particles, are rich in carbonate of lime, so necessary for the forma- 
tion of egg shells. They are quickly dissolved by the action of 
the gizzard, hence they will not answer the purpose of grit. 

Grit, to aid the gizzard in grinding solids, corresponds to teeth 
in other animals, consequently it must be hard, sharp and angu- 
lar, and preferably bright, so that fowls will be attracted to it. 
The commercial forms of poultry grit are usually made from 
crushed quartz,, granite, phosphate rock and feldspar. They 
come in various sizes for poultry of all ages. 

Table XXIII. — Composition of Oyster Shells 

Per Cent 

Carbonate of lime 93-71 

Carbonate of magnesia 1.39 

Phosphate of lime 0.76 

Organic matter 4.24 

Grit contains very little lime, and very little of the other min- 
eral substances in soluble form. What nutrients it may supply 
are but incidental ; its chief function is a mechanical one — grinding. 

Grit and oyster shells should be kept before fowls in separate 
hoppers at all times. It is surprising the quantities they will 
consume. If fowls have been deprived of grit for a considerable 
period, they will eat it as ravenously as though it were grain. 
Lack of grit, especially among flocks kept away from the soil, 
has had much to do with the failures in the poultry industry. 
Apparently, the soil furnishes some material which the system 
of the fowl craves, and which is deficient in most of our foods. 
Witness how hens revel in scratching in free earth. 



CHAPTER XVII 
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 

Simplicity of Operation. — To-day few people question the value 
and convenience of the incubator, though there are some who 
suspect that hatching machines might be difficult to operate, 
or that they require special training and considerable experience 
before good results are to be expected. This is a mistaken idea. 
Incubators are not difficult to run, and previous experience is 
altogether unnecessary. Naturally, however, the more practice 
one has with a machine, whether it be an incubator, gas engine, 
cream separator or other implement, the more proficiency one de- 
velops. On the other hand, there is a kind of beginner's luck 
in the matter of these things. The writer has seen some un- 
usually large hatches brought off by novices. 

Regularity and Care. — Perhaps it is a discredit to call this 
success luck. Let us call it the beginner's watchfulness, or be- 
ginner's faithfulness in observing the necessary rules, for such it 
really is. Later, when we become fully experienced, we are apt 
to develop over-confidence, or a sort of carelessness, which may 
cause difficulties. Regularity and carefulness, both in the man- 
agement of the heating device and in the handling of the eggs, go 
far toward insuring success. Reliable incubators are made al- 
most automatic and fool-proof these days. They are so simple 
that children can operate them. Therefore when poor hatches 
result, it is well to look for other causes beside the machine. 

Condition of the Eggs. — No incubator can vitalize eggs with 
weak germs, or overcome conditions which may have had a del- 
eterious effect on the eggs before they were even taken to the 
incubator cellar. The first and one of the most important steps 
in the process of either natural or artificial incubation begins in 

235 



236 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



the condition of the eggs. See chapter on selecting eggs for 
incubation. If the eggs are in every way strong and hatchable, 
the incubator will hatch them almost as well as the hen, and a 
great deal more economically, because the machine can handle 
such large quantities. 

The prospective purchaser of an incubator is sometimes per- 




Fig. 148. — Small single tray incubator suitable for the farmer and backyard 

enterprise. 



plexed as to which is the best type of machine for his purpose. 
There are many different makes of incubators on the market, 
which may be divided into two general classes: hot-air machines 
and hot-water machines, all of which are constructed along 
moisture and non-moisture designs. In principle they are es- 
sentially the same. The reason for this is clear: the whole 
theory of incubation is based upon the fact that, if a fertile egg 



TYPES OF INCUBATORS 



237 



is kept for a sufficient period of time under certain conditions of 
heat, ventilation, moisture, and position, it will be transformed 
into a healthy fowl. 

Small incubators are heated by gas or kerosene, though most 
of them use the latter. Gas burners require less attention and 
are desirable in every way, but it is unfortunate that gas is not 




Fig. 149. — Double tray lamp incubator with capacity of from 200 to 400 eggs. 



available in all localities. Electricity is also used for heating 
incubators, and has proved satisfactory, but it requires a totally 
different method of radiation. The large incubators — those 
which have a capacity of many thousands of eggs, popularly 
known as mammoth machines, are mostly heated by a coal- 
burning stove, though gas is used to some extent. 

The hot-air-heated machines are those in which fresh air is 



238 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



taken in at the lamp, heated as it passes around the drum, which 
corresponds to the chimney of a lamp, and passed through the 
egg chamber by means of a diaphragm in the ceiling of the ma- 
chine, and then out through variously arranged outlets. See 
Fig. 150. In some machines the heated air only passes over the 




^^^m^m ^s^^^y ^^^^^^ ^^^ 



V 






/ 



j \ 




(California Experiment Station) 

Fig. 150. — Cross-section of a hot-air incubator, showing method of regu- 
lating the temperature and ventilation, a, Counterpoise weight; b, regulator 
arm; c, connecting rod; d, thumb-screw; e, pivot casting; /, heater disc; g, 
cotton batting filling between inside and outside cases; h, thermostat; i, 
egg chamber; j, moisture pan; k, nursery; m, bottom ventilator; n, insula- 
tion in bottom of incubator; p, outlet to discharge air from egg chamber into 
false bottom beneath moisture pan; r, fresh air intake; s, outlet for escape of 
lamp fumes. 



radiator above the egg trays, and never actually enters the egg 
chambers. 

Hot-water machines are heated by tanks or a system of pipes 
above the egg trays. In both types the heat is supplied with a 
regulator which, acting upon a valve or damper, controls the 
admission of heat to the egg chamber. Such a device is called 
the thermostat. 

Moisture. — Whether moisture should or should not be sup- 



MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE 239 

plied has never been definitely decided; both principles have 
their advocates. Some machines are built with pans to hold 
moist sand or water, others have none. Some machines are 
built with a solid bottom, the idea being to conserve the moisture 
within the eggs, and others are built with slatted bottoms, 
through which there is a constant circulation of air. All types 
are in general use, and all give equally good results. The ques- 
tion of moisture is one that must be solved by the individual 
operator. Common sense should tell us, however, to conform 
in a general way to the instructions of the manufacturer. In- 
cubators which are designed to use moisture pans seldom give 
best results when operated without the pans. Similarly, the 
non-moisture machines are seldom improved by the addition of 
moisture pans. 

In the opinion of the writer there can be no set rule advanced 
on the subject of moisture. That excessive evaporation is bad 
for a hatch, there can be no doubt. And too much moisture will 
ruin a hatch, also. It seems to be better to err upon the side of 
too little than too much. But everything depends upon the 
incubator, its location, the season of the year, climate and the 
external atmosphere at the time of the hatch. If the weather 
is extremely dry and hot, more evaporation will take place than 
when the weather is cool and damp; this is only natural. An ex- 
amination of the air cell in the egg by means of a candle will 
reveal the exact condition of the contents. See chapter on test- 
ing hatching eggs. 

Temperature. — An absolutely uniform temperature is not at all 
necessary to success, and in fact, it is seldom obtainable. That 
statement does not mean the operator should disregard tempera- 
ture or cease his vigilance. On the contrary he should aim to 
keep the thermometer as near a certain degree as possible. The 
point is this, variations of a degree or so either up or down, if 
corrected within a reasonable length of time, will cause no dam- 
age. The operator should aim to maintain a temperature of 
\02yi degrees for the entire hatch. If the temperature drops 
to 100 degrees or rises to 104^ degrees, no ill effects will result, 



240 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



providing either extreme is discovered and corrected. These 
temperatures might be termed the limits of natural incubation. 
Some operators prefer to start a hatch at 102 degrees, and grad- 
ually allow it to creep up to iot,J4 degrees at the close. 

Hen's Temperature. — Personally, I think there is no better 
authority than an imitation of the hen's ways. If we insert a ther- 
mometer under a sitting hen we will find a temperature of 1 04^ de- 
grees against her bare breast ; in her plumage in about the center of 
the nest the temperature is a trifle more than 103 degrees; while 
the temperature inside the sitter's wings, a position that corre- 
sponds to the outside row of eggs', is about 100 degrees, sometimes a 

little less. Thus, the eggs are 
exposed to a constant vari- 
ation in temperature, with an 
average of 1 02 ^degrees. The 
hen turns her eggs about eight 
times daily in order to over- 
come this variation, but it 
cannot be doubted that some 
eggs will remain in the 
warmest part of the nest for a 
greater length of time, no 
matter how faithful and care- 
ful the hen may be. 
Thermometer. — Notwithstanding the existence of this varia- 
tion, it should not be construed to mean that the office of the 
thermometer is unimportant. The thermometer should be 
absolutely accurate, since it is only by this instrument that the 
operator can attempt an average temperature. We have shown 
where a variation of a degree or so will not seriously affect a 
hatch, if it is shortly corrected, but if the temperature varies a 
degree or even a half degree for the entire period, it will make a 
big change in the hatch. 

There are two general styles of incubator thermometers, while 
each style has numerous modifications. One is mounted on a 
metal frame and placed on the egg tray, with the bulb located 




[(Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 

Fig. 151. — Incubator tray showing the 
relation of thermometer to the eggs. 



TESTING THE THERMOMETER 241 

at the level of the centers of the eggs; the other is hung directly 
above the eggs, with the bulb as close to the eggs as is practic- 
able, but not touching them. See Fig. 151. It is a mistake to 
have the thermometer in contact with the eggs, because the 
temperature will vary with the vitality of the egg touched by it. 
Touching good eggs it will be high ; next to weak or dead germs it 
will be low, thus never registering the real temperature of the 
egg chamber. 

Unless there is a very good reason for changing the position of 
the thermometer, it should be used in strict accordance with the 
manufacturer's directions. In some egg chambers a difference 
of an inch in the height of the bulb will make a difference of a 
degree in the temperature. 

Testing Thermometer. — It is a good plan to test the ther- 
mometer once a year, even with a new machine. This can be 
done by comparing it with a clinical thermometer, which has 
about the same scale and range; place both instruments in warm 
water, heated to about 103 degrees, which should be stirred, and 
the bulbs kept in about the same position. Or a thermometer 
can be certified by an optical goods store or a reliable drug store. 

The thermometer is placed near the front of the egg chamber 
so that it can be easily read without opening the door to the 
machine. Even so some thermometers are particularly difficult 
to read, and it is surprising that so little improvement has been 
made in this respect. An electric flash lamp is very helpful in 
reading a thermometer. By all means learn to read the ther- 
mometer without opening the door; to so do will cause the tem- 
perature to fall. 

Set Machine Level. — The incubator should be set up level by 
all means. Heat rises to the highest point, and if the machine 
is not plumb, one part of the egg chamber will be warmer than 
the other. Do not guess at the level of the machine, but test it 
with a spirit level, both ways, for length and breadth, and cor- 
rect any irregularity with thin blocks of wood under the legs of 
the machine. 

Some manufacturers are careless about the fit of the door, or 
16 



242 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



the tracks for the egg trays. The door should fit snugly, but it 
must open and close easily, without jarring, which will tend to 
throw the regulator out of adjustment, and the machine out of 
plumb. If the doors stick, which they are likely to do wi-th the 
first hatch, plane them down a bit, or rub the edges with sand- 
paper. If the trays do not run smoothly, plane them also, and 
then rub the bearing edges with soapstone, or some other sub- 
stance that will reduce friction. Do not use oil. 




(Courtesy Newton Giant Incubator Company) 

Fig. 152. — 9,600-egg double deck coal-burning incubator. Note handles at 
end of machine which operate the egg-turning mechanism. 



In selecting a machine here are a few pointers: The size to buy 
will depend upon circumstances, of course, but it should be 
borne in mind that it does not take any more time to care for 
the heating device on a 400-egg machine than it does for a 60-egg 
machine. And in most cases the fuel cost per egg is reduced with 
the increased capacity of the machine. Furthermore, the larger 
the machine the less likelihood there is for a variation in the 
temperature. 



VIRTUES OF A CELLAR 



243 



In regard to price, it is well to consider that the value of the 
machine is small compared to the value of the eggs placed in it 
during the lifetime of the incubator; hence it is poor economy 
to purchase a machine just because it is cheap. Buy one that 
is reliable. The good hatches that it will produce will soon return 
its initial cost. 

Where to locate the machine? — This question is important. 
It has much to do with the convenience of running the machine, 
and when a device is conveniently run, it goes a long way towards 
successful operation. One needs room to work about an incu- 




(Courtesy Niagara Farm) 
Fig. 153. — Interior incubator cellar. 



bator, and sufficient light to perform the work properly. Then 
there must be plenty of fresh air, yet without direct drafts, and 
the place must be clean, free from shocks and vibrations, such 
as are transmitted by a weak floor and which would disturb the 
adjustment of the heating apparatus, and the location should be 
permanent and easy of access for the attendant. 

Cellar is Best. — Incubators are run in a great variety of places 
and under the most varying conditions; I have seen them 
operated in the barn, attic, loft, cellar, shed, spring-house, parlor 
and in a tent. Be that as it may, authorities agree that the best 





(Courtesy Candee Incubator Company) 

Fig. 154. — Erection of a mammoth incubator. Upper picture shows the 
sections and parts ready to be assembled. Middle picture shows the heater 
set up and the foundations temporarily braced to receive the body of the ma- 
chine. Lower picture shows the first section in place. 

244 




(Courtesy Candee Incubator Company) 

Fig- 155.— Erection of a mammoth incubator, continued from opposite 
page. Upper picture shows the second section in place. Lower picture 
illustrates the completed machine, with temporary bracing removed. 



245 



246 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

location is where the atmosphere is more or less moist, where the 
temperature is practically uniform, and cool, and where at the 
same time it is possible to obtain ventilation without draft. 
The air in the incubator apartment must be sweet and fresh or 
the eggs will not receive the oxygen which they absolutely re- 
quire at all times. 

These conditions are seldom found in buildings above ground, 
especially in frame structures, consequently it has become cus- 
tomary to run incubators in cellars and basements. In fact, 
there is a generally accepted view that they must be run in 
cellars for best results. 

If only a few machines are in use, they may be operated in the 
cellar of the poultryman's house, which is perfectly practicable, 
except that it is advisable to partition off a tight room for the in- 
cubators, so that the heat from a furnace or other objectionable 
influence will not affect the hatches. Where the incubating 
equipment is extensive, particularly if mammoth machines are 
contemplated, it is better to have the apparatus housed in a cellar 
specially built for the purpose. See Fig. 155. Common sense 
teaches us that if equipment of any kind is not afforded suitable 
quarters, we cannot hope for its fullest efficiency. 

For convenience in shipping and to save freight incubators are 
packed and crated within the smallest compass. With each ship- 
ment the manufacturer sends out a book or card of directions, 
telling how to unpack and set up the machine, and how to 
operate it. These instructions should be carefully followed. 
Read them carefully before attempting to set up the machine, 
count and inspect the parts, and then put them together in a 
workmanlike manner. See Fig. 154. 

In the case of a second-hand machine, it should be thoroughly 
cleaned and disinfected, and the heating apparatus carefully 
examined — taken down and re-assembled, if necessary. 

Care of Lamp. — In oil-burning machines be particularly care- 
ful of the lamp. Always start with a new wick, which should be 
slightly trimmed at the corners, so as to produce a nicely rounded 
flame. Avoid the fish-tailed flame, for it is apt to smoke and 



CARE OF LAMP HEATER 



247 



start trouble. Fill the bowl of the lamp with a good grade of oil, 
not too full, because as the oil warms it will expand and may over- 
flow. This is not dangerous, of course, any more than it is dis- 
agreeable to have oil spilled on things. It may cause smoke, or 
the oil may find its way to the eggs by means of the operator's 
hands, which will endanger the hatch. For this reason it is a 
good plan to turn and handle the eggs before caring for the lamp. 

Regulating Flame. — If the 
machine is of the hot- water type, 
then, of course, the tank must be 
filled with water before the lamp 
is lighted. After lighting the 
lamp and placing it firmly in 
position, which should be accom- 
plished without jolting the ma- 
chine, regulate the burner so that 
the flame is about half as high as 
it should be finally. The reason 
for this is, as soon as the chimney 
or heater warms, it will draw the 
flame upward and increase its 
height. It is, therefore, a safe 
practice to return about a half- 
hour after the lamp is lighted, 
to see that the flame is all right. 
Skilled operators visit their in- 
cubators at frequent intervals, 
including an inspection the last 

thing at night. The machines seldom need attention, but it is 
gratifying to assure oneself that everything is running properly. 
In hot weather, when the temperature of the cellar is likely to rise 
in the middle of the day, especially toward the close of a hatch, 
when the eggs themselves radiate considerable heat, it is often 
necessary to lower the burner of an oil-burning machine almost 
to the point of extinguishing it. In some cases I have found it 




(Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 

Fig. 156. — Well-built incubator 
heater protected by metal casing. 
Heaters of this kind meet the ap- 
proval of fire underwriters. 



248 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



expedient to turn the lamp out completely, sometimes for several 
hours, re-lighting it again toward evening. 

Always test an incubator before filling it with eggs. This ad- 
vice applies to both old and new machines. A few hours spent 
in adjustment will be time and money saved later on, perhaps. 

Just because a machine 
worked satisfactorily the last 
time it was used the preceding 
season, is no guarantee that it 
has remained in perfect adjust- 
ment. During the six months 
or more in which it was idle a 
great many things could hap- 
pen to it. Dust or dirt may 
have clogged some of the parts, 
dampness may have caused 
swelling or warping, a child, 
stray fowl, cat, rat or mouse 
may have interfered with the 
regulator or some other vital 
part. 

Heat Control. — It is impos- 
sible, of course, to attempt to 
explain the individual peculi- 
arities of the. heating devices 
of different makes of machines. 
The card or book of directions 
which accompanies the incu- 
bator should be followed for 
this advice. The general principle, however, is the same in all 
machines. Inside the egg chamber there is a thermostat, an instru- 
ment made of a combination of metals, such as steel, zinc and 
aluminum, which contract and expand, and thereby operate a 
damper. Wafer or disc thermostats, which contain some fluid used 
for expanding the disc, are also used. The point is this, they are 
connected by a thin rod to a bar or regulating arm, which is 




1 WV* ?W ,'wta ttotvavvYlflr 
6. >\»oA WuloV\o*t 

«r C*l*tr.o,°>.>N\vMt 
a to UwMr 

II Toy Cover C»lf 

H la.n\n T>\\er toy 

(4. CV\wwW,\WnA\o |). 

IS \.\rv4\\n^CV>mne>) 
IfcVrMfctiw^ome gd^ 

17 \.»n\bc»»\Xo'»A\e 

18 >!.■ V-VpY^eMu x\ 

19 ts\&\« Scot. V\r 
TwjVt JovsA 



II S«\fc OMV\e™\^ %attm 



(Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Company) 

Fig. 157. — Diagram of an incubator 
heater and lamp. 



TESTING AND REGULATING 



249 




Heater without chimney 



nicely balanced by means of a counterpoise weight. On the 

other end of this arm there is a damper, suspended over the top 

of the heater, which opens and 

closes, thereby permitting the 

heat to enter the machine or to 

escape around the damper. Some 

thermostats regulate the size of 

the flame as well as the position 

of the damper. 

The position of the counter- 
poise weight is usually located at 
the factory, and seldom needs 
attention; but it should be so 
placed in point of balance that 
it will develop sufficient leverage 
to raise the damper which is hung 
at the other end, as soon as there 
is the slightest pull on the con- 
necting rod which leads to the 
thermostat. In other words, the 
damper or tin wafer over the 
heater should be a trifle heavier 
than the counterpoise weight, 
consequently lie fiat over the vent 
in the heater when the machine is 
cold. 

We are cautioned not to tam- 
per with the heat-regulating ap- 
pliance, which is good advice in 
a way, except that intelligent 
tampering, which amounts to ad- 
justing, is sometimes necessary. 
Occasionally the regulator arm is 

found bent out of line, if it is metal, or perhaps warped, if it is 
wood, in which case the alignment will have to be corrected, or 
the damper will not fall directly over the vent in the top of the 




{Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 

Fig. 158. — Complete gas heater for 
incubator or brooder. 



250 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

heater. Then again, the tin wafer which acts as the damper may 
be bent or twisted in some trifling manner, or thrown out of poise, 
which will not allow it to settle evenly over the vent. Note these 
things carefully, and your common sense will tell you if they seem 
to function correctly. 

Adjusting Regulator. — As soon as the thermometer registers 
102 degrees, the connecting rod between the regulator arm and 
the thermostat should be adjusted by means of a thumb-screw 
so that sufficient tension is placed on the regulator to raise the 
damper about an eighth of an inch, perhaps a sixteenth of an 
inch, over the vent in the heater. Then, if the heat increases 
and the thermostat expands, this expansion will transfer greater 
tension to the connecting rod, which in turn lifts the damper and 
permits the excess heat to escape. 

The temperature of 102 degrees should be maintained for 
several hours, preferably twenty-four hours, before the eggs are 
placed in the machine, and this temperature should be attained 
without having to turn the flame up so high as to be in danger of 
smoking. Once the machine has been adjusted to "blow off," 
so to speak, at 102 degrees, and it has been found to work satis- 
factorily, do not meddle with it. 

When the eggs are first placed in the chamber, though the 
temperature was correct previously, the heat will fall instantly. 
In fact, the thermometer will probably fall so low as not to read 
at all; but do not be alarmed, this is to be expected, and is due 
to the temperature of the eggs. It is likely that the eggs had a 
temperature of 50 degrees, and if there are several hundred of 
them in the one chamber, it will take twelve hours or more for 
the incubator to warm them to the correct temperature. 

Remember that you have this latitude to depend upon in the 
operation of a machine: Several hours are required to affect the 
interior of the egg a single degree. That is, if you should sud- 
denly find something wrong with the heating apparatus and the 
thermometer registering 98 degrees or 106 degrees, it does not 
necessarily follow that the interior of the eggs is that temperature. 
And the more advanced the hatch, the greater the increase in this 



LOADING EGG TRAYS 



251 



reserve so far as a deficiency in heat is concerned, by reason of 
the heat generated by the embryos. From the fourteenth day 
this natural heat is quite noticeable. 

Cases have come to my attention in which chickens have 
hatched from eggs left out of the incubator all night, due to for- 
getfulness. Therefore, if you meet with accidents, do not as- 
sume that the hatch is ruined, and destroy the eggs; but correct 
the error, and then in a day or so test the eggs to see what dam- 




Fig. 159. — Design for concrete incubator cellar. 



age, if any, has been done. It is surprising to learn the extent 
of improper usage and handling to which eggs can be subjected 
at times, and still develop into perfectly formed chicks. I have 
thrown presumably unhatchable eggs into a manure pit, and had 
them hatch chicks. 

Loading the Trays. — If a machine can be operated for a couple 
of days with no appreciable variation in temperature, one can 
feel reasonably sure there is no fault in its mechanism, and that 
it is safe to commence hatching. Place the eggs on the trays on 



252 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



their sides, never on end, and never on top of one another. Fill 
the trays comfortably full, but avoid crowding them. This is 
most unwise and poor economy; it will make turning very diffi- 
cult, and breakage is likely to occur. 
A good plan is to allow room for two 
or three more eggs at each end of the 
tray. 

For the first three days after the eggs 
are placed in the machine, little atten- 
tion is required save the daily filling 
and trimming of the lamp. This, of 
course, must be done punctiliously. It 
is advisable to have a special time to 
do this work, and never deviate from 
it, any more than you would neglect 
your breakfast. Morning is the best 
time, because there is then all day in 
which to note the behavior of the 
lamp. 

In trimming the lamp, a term that 
really means caring for it, it is not 
necessary to actually trim the wick. 
In fact, this should not be done after 
the wick is first lighted, unless it be to 
cut off a pointed thread or corner. 
Simply rub the charred portion of the 
wick, using a rag for this purpose, tak- 
ing care to remove all dirt from the per- 
forated screen through which the air 
passes to feed the flame, or the lamp 
will smoke. Try to make a practice 
of rubbing the wick in the one direc- 
tion. In this way there will be no trouble in keeping the wick 
perfectly level. 

Turning the Eggs. — On the evening of the third day, and twice 
daily thereafter, the eggs should be turned. By turning it is not 




Fig. 1 60. — Type of oil- 
burning incubator lamp 
which is approved by' the 
fire underwriters. 



TURNING THE EGGS 253 

meant that each egg should be turned over an exact 180 degrees, 
simply that the position of the egg should be sufficiently altered, 
so that the germ will not gravitate and adhere to the mem- 
branous lining of the shell. Some operators turn their eggs 
three or four times a day. It has never been satisfactorily 
demonstrated that these extra turnings insure better hatches, 




(Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 

Fig. 161. — Phantom view of mammoth incubator in which the egg trays 
are arranged in tiers to save space. An even distribution of heat is main- 
tained by means of electric fans inverted in the top of the machine. 

though it is reasonable to suppose that they do. The hen is 
known to turn her eggs eight or ten times a day; but in her case 
this is necessary to overcome the variation in temperature in the 
different parts of the nest. 

Best results are obtained when the eggs are turned by rolling 
them with the hands. The trays of the larger sized machines 



254 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

are built with inclined bottoms, divided in the center with a low 
partition, therefore it is a simple matter to remove a few of the 
eggs from the middle rows, gently roll the others toward the 
center, replacing the middle eggs at the ends of the trays. Lay 
the palms of the hands flat on the eggs and endeavor 'to move 
them with a slight rotary motion. Avoid jarring them or hand- 
ling them roughly, for the delicate membranes and blood-vessels 
are apt to be ruptured. 

When the tray is replaced in the machine, it should be reversed 
end for end, and if there are two trays to a compartment, which 
is the customary arrangement in large incubators, the trays 
should be alternated from side to side. This is done to equalize 
any irregularity in the temperature of the egg chamber; the eggs 
are constantly moved to every point in the interior. In per- 
forming this work the hands should be clean, and particularly 
free from any kerosene that might have been acquired in handling 
the lamp. For this reason, it is well to handle the eggs first, and 
then trim the lamp. 

Cooling the Eggs. — Some operators declare that cooling the 
eggs is unnecessary. I do not agree with this idea. I believe 
that cooling is just as necessary as turning the eggs, perhaps more 
so. I have found it to be a decided help in hatching chicks of 
strong vitality, whereas lack of cooling often produced weak 
chicks. The amount of cooling depends almost entirely upon the 
season of the year and the temperature of the cellar. During 
the first week of incubation sufficient cooling is obtained in turn- 
ing the eggs. After the seventh day leave the trays on top of 
the machine or on tables until the eggs are almost cool, or until 
an egg when it is placed against the eyelid feels neither warm nor 
cool. From fifteen minutes to a half -hour is about the correct 
time. 

While the eggs are cooling in this fashion see that they are not 
in a draft, and always keep the doors to the egg chambers closed. 
The temperature in the machine should be maintained, though, 
of course, it will fall as soon as the trays are replaced, by reason 
of the lower temperature of the eggs. It is customary to cool 



COOLING MEANS STRONG CHICKS 255 

the eggs at the morning turning only, not in the evening, unless 
the hatch is pretty well advanced and the weather is exceedingly 
warm. On the eighteenth day the eggs are turned and cooled 
for the last time, after which the machine is closed and not opened 
until the hatch is off. 

This cooling process not only exposes the eggs to fresh air, but 
it causes the contents of the eggs to contract, and thereby draw 
through the pores of the shell a fresh supply of oxygen, without 
which the embryo could not thrive. 

The above methods are really in imitation of the hen's ways. 
For the first few days the sitter remains close to her nest, after 
which she leaves it once or twice a day, sometimes staying away 
for an hour or more. Cooling can be overdone, like anything 
else. But in most cases I have found too little cooling rather than 
too much, to be in practice. After all, there can be no set rules 
for an operation of this kind. The rules must be flexible, and 
governed largely by the operator's judgment. For example, 
in addition to weather conditions and the temperature of the 
cellar, the amount of cooling should be regulated according to 
the temperature of the machine for the past twenty-four hours. 
If the temperature has been low, little or no cooling is advisable; 
if the temperature has been high, then extra cooling is in order. 
Moderation — common sense — that is the watchword in running 
an incubator. Live up to the reason for a rule, rather than to 
the letter of it. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
SELECTING HATCHING EGGS 

Composition of Eggs. — Chemically, the composition of an egg 
remains practically constant, notwithstanding serious changes 
may take place in the hen's bill-of-fare, her environment and 
general care, which are in turn reflected in her state of health. 
In other words, we find in this condition, which has been estab- 
lished by careful scientific experiments, one of the highest laws 
in nature — that the animal will sacrifice its own bodily strength 
and health in a supreme effort to produce a perfect offspring. 

Comparisons have been made between the eggs of fowls in 
robust health and those in a more or less anemic, sickly condition, 
and it has been found that they are almost identical in composi- 
tion. Also, there is little or no difference in the composition of 
eggs from different breeds. This is an interesting idea, especially 
so when we consider the controversy that sometimes breaks 
forth between the advocates of brown-shelled and white-shelled 
eggs. 

This does not mean, however, and should not be so construed, 
that there is no difference in the flavor of eggs, because there is 
a vast difference in this quality — a very great difference. Further- 
more, there is a great difference in the fertility of eggs and in 
their hatchability, also in the vitality of the chicks, which are 
manifestations of the differences between the well-fed, vigorous 
fowl, and the bird which is impoverished by disease or improperly 
nourished. In short, though the chemist may not detect any 
difference in the make-up of the egg, from a reproductive point of 
view it is there, nevertheless. 

The most logical way to account for this is due to the fact that 
egg making is in reality a double process — it is a reproductive 

256 



STRENGTH REQUIRED IN EGGS 257 

and secretory process combined. It differs from milk-making 
in this respect, which is purely secretory, consequently egg- 
making is a lot more exhaustive and vital. The perfect egg not 
only contains the embryo from which the chick is developed, 
but it also contains the materials for the embryo to draw upon, 
a complete shelter for the chick during its development, and 
last of all it provides the chick with several days' food after it is 
hatched, and until it is strong enough to learn to eat. We are 




Fig. 162. — " Doing the work of four hens with a small incubator." 

speaking of the yolk, which is absorbed by the chick before it 
pips the shell. 

Thus, if we consider that the profitable hen is expected to 
produce at least ten dozen eggs a year, and in some cases speci- 
mens have laid three hundred and over, which is many times the 
weight of the hen, it is easy to understand what a terrific strain 
this must be on the fowl's constitution, and illustrates as nothing 
else can, what a really intensive organism we have in the hen. 
17 



258 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Some idea of the effort and strain may be gleaned from the fact 
that the temperature of the hen, which under normal conditions 
burns with much greater vitality than the temperature of man, 
rises two or three degrees above normal at the time the egg is 
being laid. 

The first step in the important work of incubation lies in the 
selection of the eggs. Hatching eggs of prime quality must be 
laid by hens which are intelligently bred, carefully fed and quar- 
tered, and from blood lines of known 
reliability as to stamina and prolific- 
ness. 

Poor hatches are often blamed on 
the incubator, on the eccentricities of 
a perverse hen , or the poultry raiser will 
rail against weather conditions, or what 
not, as the cause of his failure, when in 
reality the quality of the eggs is entirely 
at fault. The first essential being the 
character of the parent stock, the next 
step is the selection of eggs suitable for 
incubation, for all eggs, even though 
they are laid by strong, healthy birds, 
are not equally hatchable. A third 
step might be called the care of the 
eggs prior to hatching them, since they 
are extremely susceptible to surround- 
ing conditions. 
It is useless to attempt to obtain strong, vigorous, livable 
chicks, the kind that are calculated to perpetuate one's stock 
with profitable, productive fowls, from a sickly, poorly fed, 
listless, degenerate, in-bred, dwarfed and anemic flock of breeders, 
for the reason that it is impossible to produce any first-class article 
from inferior materials. This is a natural law, and it is im- 
mutable. 

Eggs from over-fat breeding stock seldom produce a large 
percentage of chicks. Hens that are closely confined, without 




{CoivrtesyNewtownGiant Incubator Co.) 

Fig. 163. — Sectional view 
of coal-burning incubator 
stove, with automatic fuel 
feeder. 



SELECTING HATCHING EGGS 259 

sufficient exercise, and where they have little sunshine and fresh 
air, are almost certain to lay eggs which are low in fertility, and 
even lower in vitality. Fowls that are fed on highly concen- 
trated foods and forced to the limit for egg production usually 
lay eggs which are so nearly devoid of the life-giving principles 
that they are virtually useless as breeders. 

To get fertile eggs, with strong, hatchable germs, plenty of 
fresh air, sunshine, exercise, green food and a well-balanced 
rational diet throughout are necessary. For this reason the 
breeding stock should be kept on free range as much as possible. 
Abundant range is the greatest panacea in the world for chick 
and grown fowl alike. 

The importance of selecting none but well-formed eggs for 
hatching purposes cannot be overestimated. Not only is this 
essential to the actual hatching capacity of the eggs, but it goes 
a long way toward improvement generally. Eggs which are 
well shaped and normal are almost certain to produce chickens 
which will later mature and lay well-shaped eggs, consequently 
the poultryman is enabled to secure better prices for his products 
by reason of their uniformity and superior quality. 

Select the eggs of a medium size and an average as to color 
and shape. By that I mean, let the selection be governed by the 
average product of the hen or breed, rather than by some arbi- 
trary standard. Eggs that would be considered abnormally 
large on one farm, might be considered medium-sized on another 
plant, or even small on a third. Discard all eggs which are un- 
usually long, too round, flattened on one side, elliptical, wedge- 
shaped, and those which have any excrescence or ridge. Mon- 
strosities cannot be expected to hatch. 

The ideal hatching egg is the real egg-shaped specimen, nicely 
rounded at one end, with a gradual taper to the other, and having 
a firm shell of good texture, free from bumps, corrugations and 
ether imperfections. Avoid eggs with very thin shells or ex- 
ceedingly thick shells, or those with invisible cracks. A good 
plan is to sound each egg as it is selected, by tapping it gently 
with a lead-pencil or with one's finger-nail. I have seen eggs 



260 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



with cracked shells hatch, providing the cracks were sealed 
with adhesive plaster, but as a rule it does not pay to bother with 
them. Cracks mean excessive evaporation or ruptured blood- 
vessels. 



m 




* 




rt*|Oy 9TTUUCMT 
kfttw-Koor TO 
rMTEJI COVCB UP 



Front view 




ttit -ft~ 



CU^UX FILLED 



Top view 

(California Experiment Station) 

Fig. 164. — Plans for a revolving hatching egg cabinet. 



There is a commonplace that round eggs will hatch pullets 
and long eggs cockerels. This is a notion and should not be 
taken seriously. The shape of an egg is influenced entirely by 
the contour of the oviduct in which it is cast, and has nothing to 
do with the sex of its embryo. For further proof of this, we ob- 



KEEPING HATCHING EGGS 



261 



serve that the hen laying a long egg or round egg will continue 
to lay the form peculiar to her with very little variation, pro- 
viding she is not frightened or injured in any way. 

Freshness. — Common sense teaches us that freshness is a 
prime necessity in hatching eggs. Successful poultrymen aim 
to set eggs as soon as possible after they are laid. Not only be- 
cause eggs a day or two old hatch from 12 to 24 hours earlier 
than those kept a couple of weeks, but because the longer an 
egg is kept the more evaporation takes place, which weakens 
its vitality. If eggs are held in too low a temperature, the chilling 
is likely to injure them. If they are stored where it is too warm 




- Y*'t — ■»■ — > 

Fig. 165. — End view and section of egg cabinet as shown in Fig. 164. 



the development of the germ is apt to start, and later die. A 
temperature of about 50 degrees F. seems to be best. 

The eggs should not be permitted to stand in a direct draft, 
or exposed to steam, vapor or fumes of a deleterious nature. 
The shells of eggs are exceedingly porous, therefore they are pre- 
disposed to outside influences. It is a bad plan to wash eggs 
intended for incubation. If they are so dirty as to make this 
necessary, they had better be discarded altogether. Moisture 
only helps to convey any soiled matter into the interior of the 
egg through the pores in the shell. 

In cold weather eggs intended for hatching should be gathered 
several times a day to prevent chilling, and in hot weather they 



262 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

should be collected frequently to avoid heating. If they are to 
be kept more than two or three days before being set, it is best 
to turn them once a day. There are revolving egg cabinets made 
for this purpose (see Fig. 164), but equally satisfactory results 
can be had by packing the eggs in an ordinary egg crate and turn- 
ing it over gently from day to day. This is done to prevent the 
yolk, also the germ, from gravitating to the membranous lining 
of the shell and adhering to it. 

A little attention paid to the foregoing simple directions will 
work wonders in the possibilities of hatching eggs, and will in- 
sure much better results in the brooder. It is another applica- 
tion of the doctrine of preparedness. 



CHAPTER XIX 
TESTING EGGS DURING INCUBATION 

Inasmuch as all eggs are not fertile, and because all fertile 
eggs do not contain embryos that develop properly, it has be- 
come a rule to test the eggs during the period of incubation, first 
for fertility, and later for the strength of the embryo. It will be 
readily understood why this information is desirable: In the 
first place, by removing the infertile or clear eggs, which may be 
used for culinary purposes or hard boiled and fed to little chicks, 
additional room will be created on the egg trays, which means 
greater ease and convenience in the operation of the incubator. 
Then again, if the dead germs are removed the egg chamber is 
more easily kept free from bad odors, and this is a worthy factor. 

Since there is no way to determine if an egg is fertile before 
placing it in the incubator, we must endeavor to gain this in- 
formation while the eggs are being hatched. Claims have been 
made that fertility can be told before incubation. These theories 
have no basis in scientific fact. They are usually offered for 
some pecuniary gain, and should be discarded. 

Construction of an Egg. — The yolk of a fresh egg floats in a 
dense mass of albumen, popularly known as the white, which is 
in the form of layers. These layers are particularly noticeable 
in the hard-boiled egg. Attached to the yolk are two cords, 
called the chalaza. The office of these cords is to suspend the 
yolk in the white and keep it from injury, and to keep the life 
germ which is attached to the vitelline membrane of the yolk 
in a certain position where it will receive the fullest effect of heat 
during incubation. See chapter on the development of an egg. 

Experiment and you will soon see that no matter how you twist 
or turn an egg, the yolk will always return to a definite position. 

263 



264 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



That is — it will do so providing the egg is fresh. These cords, 
or chalaza, lose strength with age, the albumen becomes thin and 
watery, and the yolk, instead of being supported in the center of 
the white, settles or gravitates to the surface, where it finally 
adheres to the membranous lining of the shell. In time the 
vitelline membrane which surrounds the yolk loses its strength 
and ruptures, and thereby allows the escape of the yellow sub- 
stance — called the vitellus — into the albumen. 




(Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
Fig. 1 66. — Turning and cooling eggs for hatching. 



There are several fallacies in connection with the production 
of eggs which all breeders should aim to clarify. One is that a 
pen of fowls must be headed by a male bird for the production of 
eggs. Another idea is that only fertile eggs contain life germs, 
sometimes called germinal spots. Still another supposition is 
that the germ contains an innnitesimally small chick, and that 
the process of development is simply enlargement. All of these 
ideas are logical enough in their conception- nevertheless all 
are wrong. 



NECESSITY FOR MALE BIRDS 



265 



The presence of the male is not essential to the production of 
eggs. Hens will lay just as well without his society as with him. 
Some breeders claim that their hens do better without males. 
I do not think there is anything of importance to this idea, ex- 
cept in rare cases where it might be found that a large number of 
males were annoying the hens. If anything, I am inclined to 
think that egg production is slightly improved by the presence 
of a few males. They are very attentive in the matter of lo- 
cating food, and in escorting the flock afield, which induces exer- 
cise and encourages foraging. This value, however, is more 




t i 




5 

(California Experiment Station) 
Fig. 167. — Plans for an electric egg candler or tester. 



than offset by the disadvantage in having fertile eggs at times 
when they are not required for hatching purposes, because they 
are so easily affected by heat. These days the slogan is — "swat 
the rooster," and in the long run it is a good rule. 

Now for the second fallacy: An egg, whether fertile or not, has 
a small grayish spot the size of a pin-head on the surface of the 
yolk, known as the life germ, because it is the vital principle of 
the egg. If an egg is broken into a saucer, this germ is usually 
plainly visible to the naked eye; sometimes it is quite con- 
spicuous. Examine it closely; if it has a clear outer rim or circle 



266 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



with little white dots in the center, it is fertile. The infertile 
germ is whitish in appearance and lacks the clear outer ring. 

The activity of this life germ is temporarily suspended as soon 
as the egg is laid. But as soon as the egg becomes heated to the 
proper temperature, either by contact with the hen's body or by 
other means, its development is resumed. It has been found that 
this germ contains no definite organs, but that its function is to 
reproduce other cells like itself, each enlarging and reproducing 
more cells with the same functions, which ultimately establish 
the form and body of the chick. 

Signs of Life. — After about 24 hours' incubation life is per- 




Dead Germ. 





Fertile Egg 



Fig. 168. 



Infertile Egg 

(.California Experiment Station) 

-Appearance of hatching eggs through candle on seventh day of in- 
cubation. 



ceptible, but only if the egg is broken open. Blood-vessels may 
be seen, and on the third day the heart appears. On the fourth 
day the eye can be distinguished, and from the eye and heart 
blood-vessels radiate in all directions, which, to the mind of the 
candler, resemble a sort of spider. See Fig. 168. This network 
of blood-vessels continues to grow until it completely surrounds 
the shell membrane. Its function is to take up oxygen penetrat- 
ing the shell, and act as a respiratory apparatus until the lungs 
are completed on or about the nineteenth day. 

The lungs start to take form on the fifth day, and on the seventh 
day the bill is noticeable. The bones are pretty well shaped by 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO 



267 



the ninth day, later the muscles of the wings are visible, and by 
the eleventh day the arteries are quite distinct. Up to the end 
of the first week the embryo lies very still, after which it shows 
unmistakable signs of voluntary motion. The yolk is now per- 
ceptibly thinner, for the growing embryo draws heavily upon it 




(Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 



Fig. 169. — Testing hatching eggs. 



for nourishment. The feathers are well developed by the four- 
teenth day; on the eighteenth day the first cry is usually heard. 
On the day following the yolk should be nearly all taken into the 
body. The beak of the chick then breaks through the membrane 
into the air cell, after which it soon pips the shell and extricates 
itself. 



268 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Testing Eggs. — It is customary to test hatching eggs twice, 
the first time on or about the seventh day, for fertility, in which 
the clear eggs are removed; and the second time at the end of 
the second week, though some operators, if they make their first 
test on the seventh day, which is pretty sure to remove' most of 
the dead germs, prefer to make the last test on the evening of the 
eighteenth day, when the eggs are turned and cooled for the last 

time, and the machine 
is to be closed until the 
hatch is completed. 

The shells of white 
eggs are so translu- 
cent that they can be 
tested on the third 
day, which is a big 
convenience. The 
shells of brown are so 
dense and thick that 
it is difficult to see the 
contents with any de- 
gree of accuracy until 
the seventh day. 

The process of test- 
ing eggs is simple 
enough after a little 
experience is acquired. 
It consists mainly in 
holding the egg between the eye and a strong light, which illu- 
minates the interior of the egg. In fact, it is precisely the same 
as candling eggs. See Fig. 169. 

Egg Testers. — There are many types of egg testers on the 
market, and the manufacturers of incubators usually furnish 
one with each machine. The simplest device is a tube or chim- 
ney of tin to fit over an oil lamp, and on one side of the tube there 
is a small opening, against which the egg is held for an examina- 
tion. See Fig. 170. Eggs may also be tested by sunlight, using 




Fig. 170. 



-Simple egg candling outfit — ordinary 
lamp and cardboard box. 



HOW TO TEST EGGS 



269 



a shutter or curtain with a small hole in it for the light to shine 
through. 

Evening is the best time to make a test by artificial light. 
Arrange all the details as conveniently as possible before the 
eggs are removed from the machine, especially for the first test, 
as the work should be done rapidly to avoid prolonged exposure. 
Have a low table, large enough to accommodate two egg trays, 
and locate them on either side of the tester. Two baskets should 
be placed near at hand, one for the clear eggs, and the other for 
the dead germs. One by one the eggs 
are held before the spot of light from 
the tester. If fertile, they are placed 
on the empty tray, and if infertile or 
dead, they go into one of the two 
baskets. 

Experience soon teaches the most 
unfamiliar operator how to distin- 
guish between the spoiled egg and the 
egg which is developing properly. 
And there is no difficulty at all in 
detecting the clear egg. If the for- 
mation appears as a black, station- 
ary spot, the egg is one that was fer- 
tile, but the germ of which is now dead. Other manifestations of 
a dead germ are blood rings, which indicate a hemorrhage, or, if 
the albumen appears cloudy and watery, it is a sign that life has 
started and then died. See Fig. 168. Some dead germs show 
only a streak of blood. 

Eggs from the Mediterranean breeds, such as the Leghorns, 
often run so high in fertility that some breeders do not bother 
to test them for fertility at all, preferring to test them but once — 
about the fourteenth day — for dead germs. Or the eggs may be 
given their first test without handling, by passing an electric 
torch under the eggs as they lie on the wire bottom of the incu- 
bator trays, which quickly discloses the clear ones. 




(California Experiment Station) 

Fig. 171. — Increase in size 
of air cell, due to evaporation 
during period of incubation. 



CHAPTER XX 
DAY-OLD-CHICK INDUSTRY 

Unique Development. — The day-old-chick industry probably 
constitutes the most remarkable development in the history of 
animal husbandry. Chick producers themselves do not boast 
about this achievement, and the industry is still too young to 
have gained the distinction to which it is rightfully entitled. 
In sharp contrast to other discoveries of its kind, the baby chick 
trade is one of those evolutions which arrived unheralded and 
unnoticed, but which instantly secured recognition through sheer 
merit alone. 

Accidental Beginning. — The baby chick business is unique 
in that the discoverer of it did not know that he had discovered 
anything. The idea came into being by accident, one might say. 
And from this accidental beginning it has progressed by leaps and 
bounds that are almost bewildering even to those who have made 
a practice of following the enormous strides taken by other 
branches of the poultry industry in the past twenty years. 

Old Idea. — We speak of the baby chick trade as a new idea, 
whereas it is little more than the adaptation of a very ancient 
practice. Artificial incubation is an old custom. It was prac- 
ticed by the Chinese and Egyptians centuries before the Christian 
Era. Tradition credits the invention to the priests of the ancient 
Temple of Isis. The Egyptian hatcheries, which were little 
more than brick ovens heated by wood fires, were public institu- 
tions, operated on a toll basis. The farmers brought their eggs 
to the hatcheries, and later they returned for the chicks. Prac- 
tically the same idea is carried on in this country, and it is called 
custom hatching. 

It remained for an American farmer to expand this custom 

270 



ORIGIN OF CHICK TRADE 



271 



hatching into the actual sale of baby chicks. The story goes 
that a poultryman agreed to do some hatching for a neighbor as 
an accommodation. This neighbor died suddenly while the 
hatch was in progress, whereupon the poultryman was at a loss 
to know what to do with the five hundred chicks which he had 
incubated. He had no facilities for brooding the extra chicks, 
and he could not afford to kill them. It occurred to him that 
some of the townspeople might buy them to place under their 
sitting hens. 

Accordingly this poultryman placed some of the chicks in a 




(Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company) 

Fig. 172. — Series of double-deck mammoths in a large Eastern 
hatchery. 



basket, covered them over carefully to keep them warm, and set 
out to peddle what he conceived to be a very strange assortment 
of wares. 

Sold Out. — To make a long story short, this poultryman not 
only sold all of his extra chicks without any trouble, but he dis- 
covered that he could have disposed of hundreds more. He found 
that farmers and backyard poultry keepers were only too eager to 
avail themselves of the opportunity, and to pay a fair price for 
the chicks. It was an inspiration to the poultryman. He rea- 
soned that if farmers in his own community wanted to buy chicks 



272 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

already hatched, in preference to going to the trouble of incubat- 
ing their own eggs, it was likely that people in other communities 
would want to buy them for the same reasons. 

Forthwith this poultryman increased his incubator capacity, 
and for the remainder of the season he found a ready sale for all 
the chicks he could hatch. The following year he added more 
incubators, and to be sure of a sale for his increased output, the 
poultryman inserted a small advertisement in a local paper. 
The notice was to the effect that he had little chicks for sale, 
and that he would deliver or ship them when one day old. Orders 
came in thick and fast, and in a comparatively short time the 
season's output was sold or reserved. 

The next year this progressive poultryman's incubator ca- 
pacity was trebled, also he did more advertising. He sold out 
again. Most of the buyers to whom he sold the first season 
wanted more and more chicks. They were satisfied customers 
and told their friends about the scheme. Whereas the first 
year's chicks were sold to farmers living in nearby sections, now 
orders began to come in from more distant points and from other 
states. The poultryman soon found that he had more business 
than he could possibly handle. 

Idea Spreads. — Then it was that others engaged in the enter- 
prise, until the baby chick industry quickly spread throughout 
the entire country. In less than five years hatcheries were dotted 
in almost every state from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific, 
and almost all reported a thriving business. 

To-day the chick industry has assumed operations on a gigantic 
scale. It has capital invested in plants and equipment running 
into millions of dollars. Millions of chicks are produced each 
year, and the demand is constantly growing. In the opinion of 
many, the business is still in its infancy. 

Capacities of Hatcheries. — Apparently the size of a hatchery 
has no limitation. There is one in Ohio which has an incubator 
capacity of over 600,000 eggs — about forty tons of eggs — at 
each hatching. See Fig. 174. During the spring of 191 7 this 
establishment produced 1,500,000 chicks. Numerous other 




i8 



273 



274 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



i 



hatcheries ship from a quarter to a half million chicks in a season, 
while scores of smaller plants tufn out numbers varying from 
twenty thousand to a hundred thousand chicks. 

It is doubtful if any enterprise could make the enormous growth 
of the day-old-chick trade within such a short space of time, unless 
it possessed some peculiar advantages. That is the secret of the 

success of the chick trade — it has 
unique advantages, and natural 
ones. 

The first poultryman stumbled 
over them, but even he did not 
see the commercial possibilities 
at the time. His awakening was 
not so much in the baby chick, 
as in the realization of the extent 
to which farmers and poultry 
keepers generally were disgusted 
with their own efforts in trying to 
hatch eggs. The opportunity to 
purchase chicks already hatched 
filled a long-felt want, unques- 
tionably the greatest want in the 
poultry industry. It ran counter 
to the familiar proverb — " Never 
count your chickens before they 
are hatched," of which everyone 
who had struggled with the 
mechanics of an incubator or 
the eccentricities of a perverse hen, had the fullest appreciation. 
Specialization. — What is even of greater importance, the chick 
trade is an application of the principle of specialization. It is 
generally admitted that the man who devotes all his time, energy 
and thought to one thing exclusively is likely to become more 
skillful in that particular line than the man who must do the same 
thing and a dozen others besides. The poultryman who pro- 
duces baby chicks is a specialist. He has trained himself for 




{Courtesy Smith Standard Company) 

Fig. 174. — One of the incubating 
rooms in a hatchery of 600,000 egg 
capacity. 



ADVANTAGES OF CHICK INDUSTRY 



275 



the work. He has experimented and put into operation methods 
and appliances best suited to secure maximum results at the 
minimum cost. 

The beginner with poultry, who is the chick producer's best 
customer, as a rule, is especially benefitted by the merits of 
specialization. While the beginner's attention is occupied with 
a hundred and one details incident to the commencement of 
operations, and before he has had time to learn his own lessons in 







(Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company) 
Fig. 175. — 10,000 chicks ready for shipment. 



the economical operation of an incubator, he has at his command 
for a very nominal charge the services of a veteran operator. 

Still another advantage: If a poultryman meets with a mis- 
fortune of some kind, either with sitting hens, artificial incuba- 
tion or brooding, and there is no time in which to make a fresh 
start, his project sustains a severe setback, maybe for a year, 
except for the baby chick operator. 

To-day it is comforting to think that if you are caught in a 
tight place through unforeseen circumstances, you can turn to 
the baby chick man. He takes the responsibility of counting 



276 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



your chickens before they are hatched. He assumes the risk 
of your not having broody hens early enough to produce chicks 
for autumn layers. He can furnish you with broods without your 
having hens at all, and in whatever quantity and at whatever 
time or times you want them. Hence a start can be -made on 
short notice, and the only equipment required is a brooder. 

The baby chick man, perhaps, has forgotten more about the 




Fig. 176. — Incubator building on a large hatchery in Ohio. 



operation of an incubator than the average operator will ever 
take the time to learn. Therefore its eccentricities, if it has any, 
do not keep him awake nights. He is operating on a very large 
scale, consequently he can afford to hire the services of trained 
assistants. And the scale on which his business is conducted 
enables him to incubate an egg for maybe one-third the cost 
others could do it. Briefly, the baby chick man is one of the 
greatest assets to the poultry industry. He is a sort of fly-wheel, 



WHY CHICKS CAN BE SHIPPED 277 

with sufficient impetus to carry other breeders over their fluctua- 
tions in power. As the baseball fan would say — He's a good 
pinch hitter. 

Many were prejudiced against the day-old-chick trade at one 
time, and a few are still opposed to it. They feel that baby 
chicks, above all creatures, seem so tiny and delicate as to re- 
quire the utmost care and attention for the first hours of their 
existence, and that to ship them hundreds of miles at the mercy 
of a cardboard box is little short of barbarous. Others ask: 
"Will the little fellows survive the shipment in express cars with- 
out being chilled, or without permanent injury to their vitality 
and productiveness?" 

Natural Provision. — Let us consider these fears: Chicks re- 
quire neither food nor drink for the first couple of days of their 
life. Practically the only attention needed consists of rest, 
warmth and air. During the period immediately following in- 
cubation the chick is sustained by the assimilation of the yolk 
of the egg. The general practice is to allow the chicks to remain 
in the incubator for about twenty-four hours after the hatch is 
completed, then to place them in the brooder for another day 
before giving them food. In fact, some poultrymen do not give 
their first feeding until after the third day, believing that this 
much time is required for the proper assimilation of the yolk. 

In any event it is this provision of nature which gave rise to 
the possibility of shipping chicks long distances while they were 
in this dormant state. This natural provision was greatly 
aided by the invention and perfection of special boxes or carriers, 
which were designed with the idea of conserving the warmth 
radiated by the chicks themselves. See Fig. 175. 

The principle of this shipping box for chicks is much the same 
as the fireless cooker or the vacuum bottle, both of which were 
regarded rather skeptically at first. The principle is based on a 
very simple law, that of retaining heat or cold by non-conducting 
enclosures, and corresponds to the insulation in a refrigerator. 

One of the best packages yet devised for the shipment of baby 
chicks is that made from corrugated fibre-board, than which 



278 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



there is no greater non-conductor of heat or cold, weight, strength 
and other qualities being considered. Carriers of this descrip- 
tion are made expressly for the purpose. They are strong, — 
capable of withstanding the weight of a man, — durable, easy to 
assemble and handle, and represent a great saving in transporta- 
tion charges by reason of their light weight. They are usually 
made in three sizes, for shipments of 25, 50 or 100 chicks; the 
small size containing but one compartment, the 50-chick size 
two compartments, and the large size four compartments. 
Early in the season, when the weather is quite cold, more chicks 

may be shipped in each 
box than is stated above, 
because the chicks huddle 
closely together and re- 
quire very little space. 
Similarly, in very warm 
weather the number 
should be reduced to about 
twenty chicks to a com- 
partment, to prevent over- 
heating. 

Ventilation is obtained 
by cutting small holes in 
the sides of the box near 
the lid, and in such a way that drafts are prevented. In the winter 
very few holes will supply all the air necessary, while as the season 
advances, depending also upon the climate to which the shipment 
is made, more holes should be cut. 

To prevent the chicks from slipping around over the smooth 
surface of the bottom of the box, cut hay, straw, alfalfa or other 
material is placed in the bottom to give them a foothold, and to 
absorb any manure. If the weather is extremely cold, feathers 
may be substituted, which will make the little fellows as warm 
and comfortable as though in a brooder. As* a matter of fact, 
these shipping boxes are precisely the same as fireless brooders, 
in which the heat from the chicks' bodies is bound to keep them 



'■" . • \ --; 




• *A 1 '^^3L 




■ to (*»£$■ 


1 


it ' v j 


I;,/'-*.- ■ : - 


"•!' ■!-■:' '.J"! 



(Courtesy Smith Standard Company) 

Fig. 177. — Hatchery of 600,000 egg capa- 
city; it resembles a warehouse or refrigerat- 
ing plant. 



DISTANCES SHIPPED 



279 



sufficiently warm. The point to remember is to place the correct 
number of chicks in a given size box. With this done, there is 
no question as to their security. 

Mortality. — A visit to any of the large hatcheries will show that 
it is now a common thing to ship chicks a thousand miles and 
have them arrive at their destination in as healthy and active a 
condition as the day they were removed from the incubator. 
The average mortality during shipment is two per cent, which is 
a negligible factor, and would probably exist anyhow, in placing 
the chicks under the 
hover in a brooder for the 
first twenty-four hours. 
Most hatcheries make a 
practice of including 
three or four extra chicks, 
to allow for this mortal- 
ity. In addition to this, 
they guarantee safe ar- 
rival and full count, and 
will make good any losses, 
providing these are re- 
ported at the time the 
packages are delivered 
by the carrier's agent. 

A poultry plant in 
Maine shipped a box of 
fifty chicks to a town in 
Wyoming, a distance of 2600 miles, and only four of the birds per- 
ished. Another shipment was made to New Orleans, in which the 
chicks were two days and three nights on the road, and they arrived 
none the worse for their long journey. Express messengers and other 
railroad employees are now so accustomed to handling baby chick 
shipments, and they seem to have such a great deal of sympathy for 
them, that the shipper is usually assured of the very best treatment. 

Pet Shop Trade. — For the past couple of years the hatcheries 
have found a big outlet for chicks in pet shops and 5-and-io-cent 




{Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
Fig. 178. — 500 chicks ready for express ship- 
ment. Corrugated boxes are slipped into a 
wooden crate for extra protection. 



280 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

stores. Hundreds of thousands have been sold to eager buyers 
in this way, mostly to women and children who find it difficult 
to resist the attractiveness of little chicks. Seemingly nothing 
arouses the human interest so quickly as a flock of chicks, which 
fact constitutes a potent advantage, in that the chicks advertise 
themselves. Every child and most women have an impulse to 
love and fondle a tiny chick, though generally to the discomfort 
and injury of the latter. 

It is doubtful if this phase of the business should be encouraged. 
The chicks are sold almost exclusively as pets, and the stores 
handle them largely as a drawing card, often at prices less than 
they have to pay, simply to attract buyers for other goods — an 
advertising scheme. Very few of the chicks outlive the pet stage 
or serve a useful purpose, thus the practice amounts to a waste. 
If stores insist upon retailing chicks, they should distribute a 
pamphlet on the care of the birds, or make some attempt to en- 
lighten inexperienced persons not to kill their pets with kindness. 

Many of the objections against the baby chick trade were raised 
by fanciers who claimed that the increased sale of chicks had 
seriously impaired their business in breeding stock and hatching 
eggs, for which they were accustomed to receiving good prices. 
If there is any truth in this belief, which is doubtful, to complain 
about it is working on the wrong tack. Poultrymen must sell 
what the buyers want, and not what the breeders choose to offer 
them. It is quite evident that customers want chicks, because 
they represent the most convenient form of acquiring stock, in 
which event it is up to the fanciers to get into the chick game, 
as many are now doing. To oppose the progress of the chick 
trade is a policy that is almost certain to result in a reaction 
against the fancier. 

Appeal to Farmers. — For years State Experiment Stations and 
agricultural organs have been endeavoring to induce the farmers 
to substitute standard-bred poultry for their flocks of mongrels. 
But the farmer has never been a heavy buyer of hatching eggs 
from thoroughbred stock, chiefly because of the uncertainty of 
success with his hatches. Now that he can buy well-bred poultry 



COMPLAINTS ARE FEW 



281 



in the form of baby chicks, ready for the brooder, his interest is 
aroused, and the farmer is fast becoming a regular customer. 

Chick producers will do well to direct their appeal more directly 
to this class of trade, and not so much to the beginners. The 
farmers produce the bulk of our poultry, and the chances are 
they always will. Furthermore, they produce it more or less 
as a side line, at the least possible outlay for grain, labor, housing 
and range. 




(Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company) 
Fig. 179. — Double-deck mammoth incubators of large capacity. 



Few Complaints. — It is curious, perhaps, but poultrymen de- 
clare they receive fewer complaints over the sale of baby chicks 
than with hatching eggs, therefore they prefer to sell chicks. 
This anomaly is attributed to the fact that the customer may se- 
cure unsatisfactory results from eggs, for which he is practically 
certain to blame the poultryman, when in reality the customer's 
ignorance or carelessness, or the integrity of his hens or incubator, 
is entirely at fault. 

It must be admitted that any one of a dozen things can befall 



282 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

a shipment of eggs, which may weaken or destroy their hatch- 
ability, and over which the poultryman has no control. Never- 
theless he is held responsible. He seldom has a chance to defend 
himself. He must either endure a dissatisfied customer, which 
is a poor business associate, or he must make good the losses, 
which wipes out his profit on the transaction. 

Most of this obscurity is eliminated with baby chicks. The 
purchaser sees at a glance what he is getting, and thereafter if he 
mismanages the chicks in the brooder, he cannot blame his in- 
competence on the shipper. 

Of course, there will always be some doubt as to the quality 
and productiveness of a flock of fowls raised from a shipment of 
chicks. It is a matter of dealing with .responsible hatcheries. 
The reliable chick man is in business, not for a season, but for 
an indefinite time; he has made a considerable investment on 
plant and equipment, and to hope to derive profit from this in- 
vestment it is absolutely necessary for him to render satisfaction. 
As in all enterprises, satisfied customers are his chief assets. 

Satisfaction is more than landing baby chicks alive at the ex- 
press station of the customer. It is giving the customer chicks 
hatched from strong, vigorous, well-bred productive parent 
stock, chicks which were properly incubated, and those which 
should make rapid growth in the brooder, mature early and be- 
come prolific layers. In other words, the success of the hatchery 
depends largely upon what becomes of its products under the 
care and management of its customers. It behooves the chick 
man to aid his customers wherever possible, and to give them a 
little more value than what was promised. 

On the other hand, the customer should not expect unreason- 
able things. He must not anticipate exhibition specimens from 
utility chicks, which were sold at utility stock prices. The aver- 
age hatchery chicks, which sell for about ten dollars a hundred, 
should be from well-bred, standard stock, but not show birds. 
They cannot be expected to have the refinements in shape and 
plumage of specially mated pens, whose eggs are seen advertised 
at from five to twenty-five dollars per setting. 



CHAPTER XXI 
NATURAL INCUBATION 

Artificial incubation and brooding are to be recommended 
because of their economy. They save the hen's time, and in so 
doing the hen is enabled to produce more eggs. Very often, 
however, it is more important to save the poultry-keeper's time, 
as in the case of farmers and backyard growers, in which event 
the business of rearing young stock is left entirely to Mistress 
Biddy. 

Though incubators are widely used on farms, it is not likely 
that they will entirely replace hens, because the hens are capable 
of looking after hatching and brooding details with practically 
no outside attention. Unfortunately, the hatching season comes 
at a time when farm work — plowing and planting — is most press- 
ing. To escape the responsibility of looking after an incubator, 
the farmer prefers to depend upon his hens, knowing that they 
are fully competent to secure results, if not so economically, at 
least as thoroughly, as the machine. 

It is a mistake, however, to ignore the hens completely. Unless 
the quarters intended for the sitting hens are convenient, sani- 
tary and comfortable, not alone for the hens, but for the person 
who feeds them, it is likely that the results will be disappointing. 
The hens will do their part, providing they are given the oppor- 
tunity, and it is this opportunity which is so often neglected. 

Avoid Stolen Nests. — On farms where little or no attention is 
paid to the chickens, it is customary to allow the hens to steal 
their nests in out-of-the-way corners of the buildings, sometimes 
in the hen house, under the barn, in the loft, or in barrels or boxes 
scattered about the barnyard. This hit or miss plan neither 
gives comfort to the hen nor security to her brood; it is wrong. 

283 



284 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



The sitting hen is entitled to just as much consideration as the 
brood mare or cow. Aside from the humanity involved, to 
treat animals decently is the only way to obtain the full benefit 
of their efficiency. 

Give the Sitters Privacy. — It is a mistake to allow the sitters 
to bring off their hatches in the regular poultry house along with 
the rest of the flock. In the first place, the sitting hens are al- 
most certain to be pitilessly tormented by the other fowls. The 
layers will fight for possession of the sitters' nests, lay in them, 
sometimes drive the rightful owners off the nests entirely, or 

break their eggs, which is not 
only a loss in itself, but the 
presence of broken eggs seri- 
ously endangers the safety of 
the rest of the hatch. There 
is also the risk of allowing 
fresh laid eggs to become 
heated and spoiled by the 
sitters, or of removing the 
hatching eggs in mistake for 
fresh eggs. Or, if the nests 
are entirely ignored, it is 
likely that the layers will fill 
them to over-flowing with 
their eggs, making it impossi- 
ble for the sitting hens to 
cover the real hatching eggs, in which case they are chilled and 
the hatch is a failure. 

Vermin. — Then, again, hens set in the poultry house are more 
apt to be troubled with vermin than if they are given a clean, 
new nest of their own somewhere else. This is an important 
consideration. 

We like to think that our flocks and houses are free from lice 
and mites; but free from these pests they seldom are; make no 
mistake on this point. To delude ourselves on this score is to 
invite trouble and losses. The brood is no sooner hatched than 




Fig. 1 80. — A farm brood. 



GIVE THE HENS SECURITY 



285 



it becomes infested with vermin, both from the mother hen and 
from the nesting material. Nothing is more devastating. The 
chicks are weakened, their growth and development are dwarfed, 
they fall easy prey to disease, and those that survive are finally 
reckoned as unprofitable. 

Remote corners in the outbuildings, in mows and under sheds, 
are objectionable places for sitting hens because they are so re- 
mote. With nests scattered or stolen in this way the hens are 




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Fig. 181. — Simple devices for sitting hens. 



troublesome to feed and water; frequently the hens are neg- 
lected, either through ignorance of their whereabouts or because 
it is too inconvenient to reach them. 

Stolen nests may be free from vermin and free from the dis- 
turbances of other layers, but as a rule they are not so secure 
as the hens suppose. Rats are likely to abound in obscure cor- 
ners, and these pests are a constant menace, or the nests may be 
visited by an inquisitive cat or dog. Then, again, hens sometimes 



286 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



choose locations which are insanitary or wet, and both are detri- 
mental to good hatches. 

Fowls are accredited with astounding judgment in some re- 
spects, yet for all this show of intuition they do stupid things. 
This point is mentioned to emphasize the fact that no matter 
how attentive a hen may be to her eggs or to her brood, in a 
general way her efforts must be supervised by the owner of the 




Fig. 182. — Give the hens and their broods a grassy range and they will thrive 

like weeds. 



flock. Your labor will be amply repaid by the additional chicks 
reared . 

To set eggs successfully the first step is to get the hen — the 
right hen, because they are not all good hatchers. Chickens 
have a certain amount of individuality; some, indeed, might be 
said to be temperamental. Some hens are quiet and long-suf- 
fering; in spite of everything you do to them they will remain on 
the nest. Others are wild and nervous, and take flight at the 
approach of the attendant. These excitable birds are not to be 
intrusted with eggs. Usually they make poor work of hatch- 




u 



287 



288 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



ing, and later they are found incompetent to manage a brood of 
chicks. 

Hens from the heavy breeds, such as Plymouth Rocks, Brah- 
mas, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds and Orpingtons, make the 
best sitters. The lighter breeds, such as Minorcas, Leghorns 
and Campines, are too flighty, and they are seldom used on that 
account. Their size is against them, too. It is economy to use 



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Fig. 184. — Plan of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183, sometimes 
called an outdoor natural incubator. 



large hens because they cover more eggs, though this advantage 
should not be carried to the extreme of using clumsy hens. The 
ungainly bird is apt to break the eggs while moving about on the 
nest, or she is likely to trample and kill some of the chicks before 
the little fellows are strong enough to get out of her way. 

Test the Sitters. — The hen that is observed to leave and return 
to the nest with care and precision and to step lightly is the bird 



TEST THE SITTERS 



289 



to select for setting. But do not be misled into thinking that 
all hens found on the nest after nightfall are really and truly 
sitters. When broody hens are removed from the laying nests 
to the place where it is desired to have them sit, some may go on 
a strike and not sit at all. It is therefore best to first test the 
hens. Give them some dummy eggs for a couple of days, and 
if they show unmistakable signs of settling down to business, 
give them real eggs. 



H 






Muslin 



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15" 



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Fig. 185. — Front elevation of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183. 



Quarters. — A clean, cool, well-ventilated room or coop is the 
best place for the sitters. If it can be darkened after feeding 
time, so much the better, as the hens will be quieter. Arrange 
the nests along the walls and in such a manner that the hens will 
not have to fly or jump into them, a practice which is likely to 
break the eggs. If the coop has a dirt floor, the earth will serve 
as a dust wallow, otherwise the building should be fitted with 
a special dust bath. It is customary for sitting hens to take a 
dust wallow about once a day, which they seem to realize is 
19 



290 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

necessary to rid themselves of vermin. Therefore encourage 
this habit. 

Nests. — A nest fifteen inches square is none too big for the 
sitter, and six inches is about the right depth. Place some clean 
earth or sand — better still, a piece of sod — in the bottom of the 
nest, about two inches deep, nicely hollowed to receive the litter 
and finally the eggs. Avoid corners into which the eggs can be 
rolled and left to chill ; yet do not have the nest so much like a 




Fig. 186. — Rear perspective of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183. 



hole that there is a tendency for the eggs to pile on top of each 
other. 

Litter. — Straw, cut hay, excelsior, shavings or fresh pine needles 
make excellent nesting material, and shape the stuff so that it 
will conform to the body of the hen. Never use old nesting ma- 
terial, because of the germs or vermin which it might contain. 
If the nest boxes have been used for previous hatches, it is ad- 
visable to give them a thorough cleaning with some disinfectant, 
or to whitewash them. 



SET HENS IN PAIRS OR TRIOS 291 

The number of eggs to allow a hen will depend upon the bird's 
ability to cover them properly. Never put so many eggs under 
a hen that they are even slightly visible from beneath her plum- 
age. This is especially important in cold weather; the outer row 
of eggs is almost certain to be chilled, and in view of the fact 
that the hen changes the position of the eggs from six to ten times 
a day, it means that all of the eggs are likely to be chilled at in- 
tervals. Even if this does not spoil the hatch, it is sure to retard 
it, which is not good for the chicks. 

From ten to eighteen eggs is correct ; thirteen eggs are reckoned 
as a setting. When a number of hens are set, it is well to start 
them in pairs or trios, then at hatching time the chicks from three 
hens may be divided between two hens, or the chicks from two 
hens may be given to one hen, thereby saving the toil of extra 
hens. 

On farms it is quite common to see a number of hens with their 
broods, each brood having perhaps six chicks. If these broods 
were doubled up, the efficiency of the hens would be greatly in- 
creased, since it is no trouble for a good biddy to care for fifteen 
chicks. The work of transferring the chicks must be done at the 
start, however, or the hens are likely to refuse to accept the extra 
chicks. A good plan is to make the transfer on the evening of the 
day the hatches are completed, before the hens have left their 
nests. Slip the chicks under the hens when it is dark, and on the 
day following the chicks will not be able to distinguish their 
foster mothers, neither will the hens be able to detect their 
adopted offspring. 

Dusting the Sitters. — Special efforts must be made to render 
the sitters free from vermin. When the hatches are started, the 
hens should be thoroughly dusted with a good insect powder. 
See Fig. 187. Repeat the operation at the end of the first and 
second weeks of the incubating period. Watch for mites, and 
in case any are discovered, move the hen and eggs to a clean 
nest. Lice and mites are not only a danger to the health of the 
chicks, but they annoy the sitters to such an extent that some- 



292 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



times the hens are driven from their nests to escape torment 
from the pests. 

It is unwise to dust the hens at hatching time, unless one is 
familiar with the nature of the insect powder, because some of 

them are of such strength 
that they may in j ure or kill 
the newly hatched chicks. 
As soon as the chicks are a 
week old it is safe to dust 
the mother, and this dust- 
ing should be repeated 
weekly until the chicks are 
weaned. If, despite these 
efforts, the chicks are 
bothered with head lice, 
which sap their vitality 
and stunt their growth, it 
is necessary to grease the 
heads of the chicks with 
lard or carbolated vase- 
line. This method will 
drive the lice away, and 
tend to prevent others 
from coming. 

Feeding. — It is a good 
plan to feed the sitters at 
regular times each day, for 
this teaches them to expect 
it at certain intervals, and 
they will come off the 
nests, eat and return, 
promptly. Whole grain should be fed together with a dry mash, but 
nothing in the shape of sloppy feed should be given, because moist 
food tends to loosen the bowels. Provide clean water in abun- 
dance, grit and charcoal. In warm weather it is a good plan to place 
a can of water beside each nest, so that the hen can drink at will 




{Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 187. — Sitting hens should be carefully 
dusted to eradicate vermin. 



TESTING THE EGGS 



293 



without leaving the nest. Whole corn is an excellent food for 
sitters; it is fattening, which is a desirable effect, because the 
broody hen is prone to become very thin and poor. Should 
undue looseness of the bowels occur, the addition of a little sul- 
phate of iron in the drinking water will usually correct the trouble. 
Disturb the hens as little as possible while they are sitting. If 
the nests need attention, because they are sometimes soiled from 
one cause or another, clean them while the hens are off eating. 







Fig. 188. — The makeshift coop is all right, providing it is weather-proof, 
vermin-proof and sanitary. 



See to it that cats, dogs or other animals are unable to gain en- 
trance to the room or coop, also other poultry. 

Testing Eggs. — Few farmers bother to test the hatching eggs, 
though this is advisable, because the infertile eggs may be used 
as food for other broods. Then, too, if the fertility is poor, let 
us say if half of the eggs are clear, the eggs from two hens may 
be placed under one sitter, providing the hatches were started 
at the same time, and fresh eggs started under the hen from 
whom the eggs were removed. Here again we add to the effi- 
ciency of the hens. 

By all means darken the nests at hatching time, and do not 



294 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



disturb the hens unless they step around on the nests a great 
deal, in which event they are likely to trample the chicks, or if 
they pick at the chicks, then the chicks should be removed as 
soon as they are hatched and placed in a basket lined with flannel 
or some other warm material, and kept near a stove until the 
balance of the hatch is completed. Occasionally a hen will 
manifest a vicious attitude toward the brood from the start, 
and nothing that the attendant can do will alter the situation, 
in which case it is best to take the chicks away from the vicious 
mother and give them to a quieter bird. 




' 




Fig. 189. — Rectangular brood coop 
and run. 



(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

Fig. 190. — V-shaped brood coop 
and run. 



If the sitters are well fed immediately before hatching time, 
they are not so likely to leave the nests in search of food, there- 
fore the brood is not chilled before the chicks have had a chance 
to dry off. Confine the hens for a few days after the hatches 
come off, or they will take their broods too far afield and tire 
them. It is well to provide separate coops for the broods, and 
wherever possible place the coops on a grassy range, preferably 
where there is some shade. For the first two weeks confine the 
hens to the coops in the early morning, or until the grass has had 
time to dry off; otherwise the hens will stalk their young through 
the dew-laden undergrowth and get them soaking wet. 



CHAPTER XXII 




ARTIFICIAL BROODING 

If artificial incubation is practiced 
it necessitates artificial brooding, unless 
the hatches are small, in which case 
the chicks can be given to hens, though 
this practice really defeats the idea of 
the incubator, which is to conserve the 
hen's time. It takes at least four weeks 
to wean a brood of chicks, sometimes 
six weeks, and during this period the 
mother hen is a non-layer. In fact, 
she seldom starts to lay for a month after she has weaned her 
brood, due to the fact that she is usually so run down and out of 
condition, as the result of her maternal efforts and responsibili- 
ties, that she must first rebuild her vitality. This represents a 
great deal of lost time so far as egg production is concerned, and 
the time lost is usually during April, May and June, the months 
of heaviest laying. 

Farmers are the greatest patrons of this combination method, 
and their idea is to escape the care of the brooder, which they 
regard more or less with suspicion. It must be admitted, of 
course, that no brooder is equal to the hen as a mother; we can- 
not improve on nature in this respect ; but we can do the work a 
whole lot cheaper with the brooder, and this is an important con- 
sideration. 

Were it not for artificial incubation and brooding it would be 
impossible for commercial poultry plants to conduct their opera- 
tions on such a vast scale. It is not practicable to raise large 
numbers of chicks by hens. In the first place, it is virtually im- 

295 



296 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



possible to secure enough sitting hens at the right time — early 
enough to hatch pullets which will mature as fall layers. In the 
second place, a large number of sitting hens and their broods 
require a great deal of equipment and range, not to mention care 
in feeding; and in the third place, the expense of maintaining the 
hens, without egg production, would wipe out the profits which 
might be made from their broods. 




(Courtesy Candee Incubator Company) 

Fig. 191. — Double hot-water brooding system. A row of hovers located on 
either side of a central alleyway. 



These factors have always been of importance: to-day they 
are vital to success. The hen must be kept on the job of laying. 
Her work of rearing young must be left to the machine. 

Makes of Brooders. — There are a number of brooding systems 
in vogue, and a wide variety of makes from which to select or 
evolve a particular scheme, one that is adaptable to given cir- 
cumstances. There is as much, if not more, choice with brooders 




pq 



297 



298 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

than with incubators. One might say, there is a brooder for any 
or all circumstances. 

It goes without saying that artificial brooding should be in 
imitation of natural brooding, except that the hen's shortcomings 
should be eliminated. And the hen has her faults, make no mis- 
take on this point. For example, she will take her brood afield 
in wet weather, or lead them through wet grass in the early morn- 
ing, where the chicks may become chilled and die. 

The chief requirements of artificial brooding are these: (i) a 
compartment in which the temperature is equal to the warmth 
of the hen's body, which is accessible to the chicks at all times ; (2) 
an abundance of fresh air as well as warmth, because if heat is 
obtained at the expense of ventilation, the chicks will not thrive; 
(3) a well-lighted, moderately warm compartment in connection 
with the heated hover, which will provide a place for exercise, 
feeding and everyday activities; (4) a protected run or yard 
where the chicks can be given outdoor freedom in nice weather, 
and an opportunity to pick up greens and grits; (5) the interior 
of the brooder must be dry, capable of being flooded with sun- 
light, and safe from fire risks; (6) every compartment and all 
appliances must provide, means for convenience in cleaning and 
disinfecting. 

Common Defects. — The absence of one or more of the fore- 
going requirements is quite common in many of the brooding 
systems in use. The greatest difficulty seems to be that the in- 
stallation of the average brooding system is without sufficient 
latitude — a margin of safety which will automatically take up 
the slack resulting from sudden changes in temperature and so 
forth. Many brooders are run too hot or too cold, some have 
insufficient ventilation, and others are over-crowded. Heavy 
losses are likely to occur from these conditions, for which perhaps 
the operator condemns his apparatus, when as a matter of fact 
the trouble probably exists solely in its management. 

Careless Operation. — Nine times out of ten losses in the 
brooder are due to carelessness or mismanagement, and the most 
conspicuous blunders are made at the beginning of a new brood, 



SOME COMMON MISTAKES 



299 



in that the brood is not properly broken to the brooder. Briefly, 
the brooder will provide warmth and so on, but the operator must 
teach the brood of chicks how to avail themselves of its care. 

No one make of brooder or system of brooding is superior to 
the others. The poultry raiser must choose one that is best suited 
to particular requirements, such as the size of the flock, size and 




(Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 

Fig. 193. — Brooder stoves are great labor-savers inasmuch as they can be made 
to care for chicks in large flocks. 



type of houses, climate and so on. Also the funds available for 
permanent equipment of this sort. 

There are two principal ways of brooding : one is in small units, 
consisting of about fifty chicks, and the other is in large flocks, 
ranging from 200 to 1500 chicks. Then again, the small unit plan 
may be carried out in two ways : either by single hovers in small 
coops (see Fig. 194), usually spoken of as colony brooder coops, 
or by a long, continuous brooder house in which the hovers are 



300 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



arranged side by side and heated from a central plant, which is 
generally a hot-water system. See Fig. 191. 

Hot- Water System. — The earliest method of heating the hovers 
in a long brooder house was by means of a series of hot-water pipes 
arranged about eight inches above the floor of the brooder. The 
chicks huddled together under these pipes, and ventilation was 
controlled by means of apertures in the tops of the hovers. A 
development of this idea was found by heating a compartment 





Fig. 194. — Colony coop brooders on a Government experiment station. 



or duct under the brooder floor with a hot-water system of piping, 
and then conveying the warmed air up through a vent in each 
hover. 

Fireless Brooders. — Another method is to heat the brooder 
house to a moderate temperature by the use of a few coils of hot- 
water pipes, but to heat the hovers themselves by means of indi- 
vidual kerosene lamps. An adaptation of this method is to use 
fireless hovers, so constructed as to conserve the heat thrown off 
from the chicks' bodies. See Fig. 195. These fireless brooders 



INDIVIDUAL HOVERS AND BROODERS 



301 



have never been widely used ; the whole principle is against them. 
Adequate ventilation is impossible, since to ventilate the hovers 
means to lose the warmth created by the chicks. 

As a matter of fact, all long brooder house systems are rapidly 
disappearing in favor of large flock systems reared with brooder 
stoves. The long brooder house usually represented the most 
expensive building on a poultry farm/and because of its equip- 
ment it could not be used for any other purpose, consequently 
for six months each year it was idle. See Fig. 192. And capital 
invested in idle equip- 
ment is unprofitable. 

Individual Hovers. — 
For farmers and back- 
yard flocks, where but a 
hundred or so chicks are 
raised each year, the in- 
dividual hover, heated 
by hot air or hot water, 
with a kerosene lamp as 
the source of heat, seems 
to be the most popular 
device. See Fig. 196. 
Most of these hovers can 
be installed in any sort of 

a coop or building without alterations, or with some minor prepara- 
tion, such as cutting a hole for the exhaust pipe from the lamp. 
Some makes have the lamp in the center and are entirely portable, 
others have the lamp on one side, which is housed in a separate 
box fastened to the outside of the house. They are called uni- 
versal or adaptable hovers, and practically all makes can be de- 
pended upon to give satisfactory results. 

Colony Brooders. — Some manufacturers of portable hovers 
make a brooder coop in connection with the hover. The coop 
is built in sections, screwed together and easily handled. See 
Fig. 197. The coop is about six feet long, three feet wide and 
about three feet high at the front; it has a shed roof, which is 




{Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 195. — Homemade fireless brooder. The 
principle is that of conserving the warmth 
given off by the chicks' bodies. 



302 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



removable, and the interior of the coop is divided by a removable 
partition. One compartment is fitted for the hover; the other 
is intended for an exercising pen or nursery. Both compart- 
ments are easily ventilated, comfortable and convenient for the 
chicks, and the entire coop is readily cleaned. 

This type of brooder is commonly known as the outdoor colony 
brooder. It can be purchased complete at a reasonable price, 
and there is no better outfit for the beginner or for one who in- 




(Courlesy Prairie State Incubator Co.) 

Fig. 196. — 50-chick size lamp brooding hover which may be adapted to any 

type of house. 



tends to raise but a few chickens. The average capacity is 
fifty chicks. When artificial heat is no longer required, the hover, 
lamp and central partition can be removed and the coop used for 
a growing coop. It is also convenient for housing extra male 
birds at odd times, as a conditioning coop for show specimens, 
or as an isolation pen for sick birds. When not in use, it can be 
taken apart and stored under a shed. Paint it occasionally and 
it will last for many years. 



COLONY BROODER STOVES 



303 



Brooder Stoves. — Whereas the outdoor colony brooder is a 
splendid outfit for the farmer, backyard flock and small poultry 
plant, the colony brooder stove is to be recommended for larger 
operations. In reality the brooder stove is a development or 
enlargement of the colony brooder idea. It is of recent origin, 
yet for all it has gained greater popularity than all the other ap- 
pliances. It is the one device which permits of a gradation of 
heat and a reserve heat, and it is by far the most economical 
system of brooding, both as to labor and fuel. 




{Courtesy Prairie State Incubator O 



Fig. 197. — Outdoor colony brooder. The front and top are removed to 
show interior equipment, which consists of a hover similar to that shown in 
Fig. 196. The lamp box is on the outside, and all fumes from the lamp are 
carried off by means of the T-shaped duct leading from the top of the hover. 



Works on a Large Scale. — The brooder stove had its inception 
in the need for performing its work on a large scale, at the least 
possible cost for special buildings, for fuel, for operating costs 
and for the care of the chicks, and this it does. These stoves 
are made in various sizes, with capacities ranging from 200 to 
1500 chicks. They have passed the experimental stage; they 
are giving results, though until one has had considerable ex- 
perience in raising chicks in fairly large numbers, it is not ad- 



304 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



visable to attempt a brood greater than, say, 300 chicks. Then, 
as skill is developed, the flocks can be enlarged. Not that 
brooder stoves will fail to perform the functions required of 
them, but the operator must become familiar with ways of feed- 
ing large flocks of chicks running together, so that they can be 
induced to exercise sufficiently, and not get into bad habits, such 
as toe-pecking and feather-pulling. 

Gradations of Heat. — In many of the earlier brooding ap- 
pliances there were, generally speaking, two distinct tempera- 
tures and no gradations of heat; the interior temperature of the 
hover, so frequently stuffy and hot, and the outside air, which 




(Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.) 
Fig. 198. — Outdoor colony brooder — a complete outfit. 



was very apt to be too cold. Either of these the chick had to 
accept, and both were weakening — to be chilled or partly suf- 
focated. 

The brooder stove is a high-power furnace capable of radiating 
a great deal of heat, which, by means of a wide-spread sheet-iron 
deflector, is distributed downward over the backs of the chicks, 
where it is most needed. See Fig. 199. When taken from the 
incubator direct to the brooder, the chicks instinctively learn to 
form a circle around the stove. In the majority of times they 
will gauge their distance from the base of the stove entirely by 
the intensity of the heat most comfortable to them. See Fig. 



HIGH-POWERED FURNACE 



305 



200. In short, the brooder stove provides a gradual decrease in 
temperature, from the base of the stove, which is very hot, to 
the farthest corners of the room, which can be kept as cool as 
desired by means of ventilation. 

This arrangement of providing warmth is thoroughly practical, 
for it permits every chick to seek the degree of warmth best 
suited to its individual comfort. The plan is in imitation of 
natural brooding, which is best, except that it is not economical. 




{Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 

Fig. 199. — Sectional view of a coal-burning brooder stove. All the warmth 
is radiated downward over the backs of the chicks, where it does the greatest 
good. 



The bare breast of a sitting hen has a temperature of about 105 
degrees, which is greater heat than the chicks require under 
ordinary circumstances. The temperature of the hen's plumage 
ranges from about 100 degrees to 90 degrees. But the chicks 
are not compelled to accept any one of these temperatures for 
all time. They may seek that which is most comfortable at a 
particular time. If they have been exposed and are cold, the 
chicks can be quickly warmed by nestling close to the bare breast 
of the hen. Later they can seek a lower temperature within the 



306 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



confines of the wing feathers; or, if they are too warm, they can 
push out their heads and cool off. Thus it will be seen that the 
natural condition is a very flexible one, and we should aim to 
imitate this flexibility as much as possible in artificial brooding. 

No Special Buildings. — A brooder stove does not require a 
special type of building, and this factor is one of its greatest 
virtues. It can be installed anywhere, providing the room or 






(Courtesy Newtown Giant Incubator Co.) 
Fig. 200. — Coal-burning brooder stove. Note the circle formed by the chicks. 



building is fairly well constructed, weather-proof, dry, and 
capable of being well ventilated without direct drafts. 

Stoves may be set up in colony houses, and later, when the 
brood no longer require artificial heat, the stoves may be removed 
and the same quarters used for rearing the young stock. See 
Fig. 201. Stoves may be erected in laying houses, and when the 
broods are weaned the stoves are taken down and stored else- 
where, or removed to other quarters to take care of new broods. 
The idea is simplicity itself; it is flexible and economical. 

Fuel. — There are various types of brooder stoves on the mar- 



NO SPECIAL BUILDINGS 



307 



ket; some designed for crude oil, gasoline, kerosene, distillate and 
coal ; but, since no form of combustion is safer than that confined 
within the iron castings of a coal stove, where coal is obtainable 
for anything like a reasonable price, this fuel should become the 




tuook 



Fig. 201. — Combination brooder house, colony house and laying house. 



most popular. One scuttle of coal will run a good-sized brooder 
stove for twenty-four hours. 

The ideal house for an 8oo-chick stove is a building about fifteen 
by thirty feet, divided in the middle by a solid partition. This 
affords two rooms, one to be heated by the stove, and the other 
without heat, to be utilized as a scratching pen after the chicks 
are about a week old. There should be large windows on at 



308 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



least three sides, and so arranged as to flood the interior with sun- 
light. Except in very warm weather, these windows should not 
be relied upon for ventilation, for it is almost impossible to venti- 
late in this manner without creating drafts. It is the draft, not 
fresh air, that causes trouble. 

Ventilation. — The following system of ventilation has given 
excellent results, and it may be installed in any house at a moder- 




(Courtesy Prairie Stale Incubator Co.) 
Fig. 202. — Filling the coal hopper of a brooder stove. 



ate cost: In the four corners of the brooder house, and about 
one foot above the floor line, cut circular openings in the walls 
about six inches in diameter, and with ordinary stove-pipe and 
elbows construct an S-shape ventilator, pointing downward on 
the outside and upward on the inside. Over the inside opening 
place a screen to prevent chicks from flying into it, also a damper 
to control the intake of air. In the center of the roof install an 
exhaust vent or cupola having an area twice as great as the com- 



TEST THE BROODING SYSTEM 



309 



bined areas of the fresh air intakes. Cold air expands when 
heated, hence the necessity for doubling the size of the exhaust 
ventilator. 

Ventilating cupolas of galvanized iron may be purchased in 
varying sizes from sheet-iron workers, or a similar device may be 
made of wood which will answer the purpose nicely. If one does 
not wish to cut an opening in the roof, the highest point in the 




{Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.) 

Fig. 203. — Sectional view of coal-burning brooder stove. A, Base; B, ash- 
pit; C, grate; D, fire draft; E, thermostat wafer; F, counterpoise weight; 
G, regulator arm; H, escape vent; I, metal hover; J, curtain. 



front wall of the building may be converted into a ventilator, 
and fitted with a shield or baffling plate to prevent back currents 
of air or driving rains from entering the house. 

Test the System. — When the brooder stove and ventilation 
system are installed, it is advisable to try out the scheme for a 
few days before the chicks are brought out, in order that the 
operator may familiarize himself with every phase of the work. 
Ascertain the exact heating capacity of the stove under severe 



310 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

weather conditions, how often the fire requires stoking, if it is a 
coal fire, and how to bank the fire at night. 

A thermometer should be hung three feet from the base of the 
stove and one inch above the litter, for that is where the chicks 
sleep and rest. The stove should be hot enough to make the 
thermometer in that position register 90 degrees. No harm will 
ensue if it registers more than 90 degrees, but try not to have 
it register less oarticularly if the night is coming on cold. When 
the brood has settled down comfortably for the night, the nearest 
chicks should be about two feet from the base of the stove, and 
this intervening distance amounts to a reserve heat, so that as 
the night advances and the fire cools off somewhat, the chicks 
may draw closer to the stove for the desired warmth. 

Hover Breaking. — Late afternoon or early evening is the best 
time to remove the chicks from the incubator and place thern in 
the brooder, for the darkness will serve to restrain the more 
venturesome fellows from exploring the building and becoming 
chilled. Furthermore, when they are quiet they can be made to 
obtain their first impression of where the warmth is to be had. 
This is termed hover breaking, and it is the first and paramount 
issue in the artificial brooding of chicks; they must be taught to 
seek the hover or the base of the stove, which corresponds to a 
hover, for warmth, and until the attendant is absolutely assured 
that this instinct is firmly established, he must adopt special 
means of confining them within or very close to the stove. 

Wire Partition. — A good plan is to erect a small mesh-wire 
partition, poultry netting will do, in a circle around what is con- 
sidered to be a safe distance from the stove, removing it in the 
daytime, or when it is found the chicks no longer require it as a 
safeguard. See Fig. 193. If the chicks are not confined close 
to the stove in this manner for the first few nights, it is quite 
likely that some of them will stray from the warmth and be 
unable to find their way back, whereupon they will soon become 
chilled and die. 

With proper training, two or three days is usually sufficient 
to break a brood of chicks to the hover, and the attendant must 



BREAKING BROOD TO THE HOVER 311 

be as patient as possible, for the success of the brood later on 
largely depends upon this early discipline. It sometimes happens 
that a brood will be particularly obstinate, and insist upon spend- 
ing the night in every place but the right one, all of which is very 
exasperating and likely to tax the patience of the most careful 
operator ; yet the will of the operator must dominate. 

The expert brooder operator realizes the importance of this, 
and aims to break his brood into the ways of a particular ap- 
paratus, much as a dog is trained to follow a scent, or a horse is 
broken to the harness. Poor results are often blamed on the 
brooding appliances, when in reality the fault rests entirely on 
the persons running them. A brooder stove, no matter what 
make or type, is seldom better than the operator in charge of it. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
FEEDS FOR BABY CHICKS 

Baby chicks seem like such helpless, frail little creatures that 
the first month of their life is likely to be a period of much con- 
cern to their keeper, especially the beginner. A certain mystery 
seems to attach itself to the undertaking, which forebodes dis- 
tressing, troublesome times ahead, maybe serious losses, even 
failure. We speak of it as the brooding period, and it is well 
named. According to the dictionary, brooding means "to dwell 
upon with anxiety." 

Rearing young stock is the most difficult operation, though 
largely because it requires the closest attention to details. Other 
than this it need hold no fears, even for the novice, because the 
work is really quite simple, and almost certain of success, pro- 
viding a few elemental facts are borne in mind. Moreover, there 
is comfort in the fact that once a chick is weaned from the brood- 
ing period, which lasts from four to six weeks, depending upon the 
season and weather conditions, it is practically as hardy as a 
mature fowl. 

In its fullest sense, brooding means to provide shelter, warmth 
and comfort, a quiet retreat for the chicks, a resting place and a 
place to sleep, under the most healthful conditions, such as sani- 
tation and ventilation, which will promote rapid development 
and a strong constitution. 

Hatch all the chicks you can during March, April and May and 
the problems of brooding are greatly simplified, because condi- 
tions at this time are naturally favorable. The weather is on 
your side, also plant life, because it is fresh and appetizing. Then, 
too, March, April and May hatched pullets will start laying in 
the fall and furnish winter eggs, which is the goal of every poultry 
raiser. 

312 



HIGH-POWERED ORGANISMS 



313 



Remarkable Growth. — When one considers the remarkable 
growth made by chicks during the first month or two, it is easy 
to understand why they require a watchful attendant. At 
hatching time the chick weighs about one and a half ounces. It 
doubles this weight in six days, and under normal circumstances 
it can be made to weigh two and a half pounds in three months, 
which is more than twenty-five times its original weight. 

If we humans grew that fast, we would weigh about two hun- 
dred pounds at the age of three months. This comparison fur- 
nished some idea of the naturally intensive, high-powered ca- 
pacity of the chick, and of the need for suitable nourishment. 




{Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 204. — Summer-hatched chicks require plenty of shade. Inexpensive 
coops like these are easily moved from place to place, which moving gives 
the chicks fresh greens and clean soil. 



Proper nourishment is the crux of the whole business. Chicks 
require a great deal of food in relation to their size, but do not 
mistake this to mean that you should simply pile the food in 
front of them. On the contrary, they must be fed in just the 
right quantities. The feeding program is the most important 
consideration; it is paramount; it makes for success or failure. 

Overfeeding. — Oddly enough, perhaps, more chicks die from 
overfeeding than from underfeeding. And the trouble usually 
starts by feeding the brood too soon after it has left the incubator. 

The last development in incubation prior to breaking the shell 
is the embryo chick's absorption of the yolk. This highly nutri- 



314 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



tive material is capable of sustaining life for two or three days, or 
until the chick is strong enough to walk about freely and pick up 
food. Investigations have shown that this absorbed yolk con- 
tains almost half of the original energy of the egg. It is a wise 
provision of nature, with which it is folly to interfere. . There 
is no need for additional nourishment at this time, and to supply 
any will invariably work more harm than good, in that it inter- 
feres with the proper assimilation of the yolk. We might say 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Fig. 205. — Feeding frame for young chicks. It is wire-covered, and none but 
the small chicks can crawl under the lower rail. 



that the chick's system is not ready for food until the third day 
after incubation. 

This condition makes it possible to ship chicks hundreds of 
miles without imposing any hardships through lack of feeding 
and watering. It is a good plan, however, to place water before 
the chicks as soon as they are removed to the brooder, preferably 
water with the chill taken off, if the weather is cold. Care should 
be taken that the little fellows do not wallow in the water and 
get wet; therefore it is best to use shallow vessels protected in 
some way so that the chicks cannot fall inside. 



FEED LITTLE BUT OFTEN 



315 



As a rule, chicks learn to eat as soon as they are able to stand. 
They will even commence picking at things while they are in the 




{Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 

Fig. 206. — -Brooder stove with the hover or heat deflector raised to permit 
sweeping and cleaning around the base of the stove. The deflector is suspended 
by means of rope and pulleys attached to a counterpoise weight. 



incubator. The idea seems to come to them as instinctively as 
walking. In the case of drinking it is sometimes necessary to 
teach them, or at least to point out the presence of water. This 



316 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



is easily done by dipping the bills of two or three chicks in the 
water. They will catch on to the idea in a few minutes, where- 
upon the rest of the flock will quickly imitate them. 

Feed little but often, is the slogan to be adopted in the brooder. 
This is especially important with flocks which are confined in- 
doors, or leg weakness is 
apt to result. Chicks on 
free range are not sus- 
ceptible to this ailment. 
Leg weakness comes 
from excessive feeding 
without sufficient exer- 
cise; the bodies of the 
chicks become too heavy 
for the muscles and bones 
of the legs, consequently 
the chicks are unable to 
walk or stand. They 
present a pitiable ap- 
pearance and are likely 
to be trampled and killed 
by the rest of the flock. 
[ On the morning of the 
third day, which is to 
say when the chicks are 
forty-eight hours old, 
give them a light meal 
of easily digested food, 
preferably soft food, 
which has been sprinkled with fine grit. Repeat this feeding 
every two or three hours, so that the chicks receive four or five 
meals a day. 

The first feed may consist of bread crumbs moistened with 
milk, bread crumbs and hard-boiled eggs ground fine, shells and 
all, johnnycake, or pinhead oatmeal. Food moistened with 
milk is of great value in giving the chicks a good start, but the 




Fig. 207. 



{Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Company) 

-Small lamp hovers are easily moved 
from place to place. 



IMPORTANCE OF MILK 317 

mixtures must be fed in a crumbly state, never in a sloppy con- 
dition. In the case of bread crumbs a good plan is to moisten 
them with milk and then squeeze out the greater part of the liquid. 
It is also important to feed these mixtures fresh. Do not mix 
up a large quantity and then allow it to stand around until it 
turns bad. 

Johnnycake. — The following is a good recipe for johnnycake: 
One dozen eggs (wherever possible use clear eggs removed from 
the incubator), or one pound of sifted beef scrap, to ten pounds 




{Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 208. — Where flocks of different ages are likely to run together, the 
young broods should be given a fenced yard for the first few weeks so that 
they will not be molested by the older chickens. 

of corn meal; add enough milk to make a dough, and one table- 
spoonful of baking soda; bake into cakes. 

Milk. — Many breeders are having good results by feeding 
milk and no water the first week or ten days, and even longer. 
Sour milk should be fed just as it begins to thicken and before 
it separates, as the chicks like it better in that condition. Milk 
is more than a food; it contains lactic acid, which tends to pre- 
vent and correct white diarrhea and kindred bowel troubles. 
It should be placed before the chicks in shallow pans or founts, 
so designed that the birds cannot wade in it or contaminate it. 



318 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Scratch Grains. — Continue with the soft food for three or four 
days, then gradually substitute a scratch grain mixture consisting 
of cracked wheat, finely cracked corn and hulled oats in equal 
parts, to which may be added about five per cent of cracked peas 
or broken rice, and two per cent of millet or rape seed. ■ At the 
same time a dry mash should be fed, which may consist of ten 
pounds of corn meal, ten pounds of wheat bran, two pounds of 
bone meal and one-half pound of granulated charcoal. 

Only as much of the scratching feed should be given as the 
chicks will scratch out in ten minutes. If the chicks have range, 

the dry mash may be kept 
before them all the time, in 
shallow troughs or hoppers. 
If they are confined to the 
brooder, the mash should be 
left before them for about 
fifteen minutes at each feed- 
ing. 

If it is impossible to sup- 
ply the chicks with milk in 
any form, add a half pound 
of sifted beef scrap to the 
dry mash after the first 
week. Increase the propor- 
tion of scrap each week, 
until it amounts to about four pounds at the end of a month. 

After the first week the number of feedings may be reduced to 
four a day, and after the second week to three a day. In the 
morning the feeds are light, so as to encourage exercise. To- 
ward evening the heaviest feed is given, so that every chick may 
go under the hover with a full crop. The last meal should be 
given about an hour before sundown. 

The best way to feed the soft mixtures is on boards or heavy 
sheets of cardboard. Tin pie plates are good, except 'that the 
chicks slip about on them. Never feed the soft mixtures in the 
litter, where they are likely to absorb filth from the droppings. 




(Courtesy Newtown Giant Incubator Company) 
Fig. 209. — Sectional view of brooder stove. 



BEEF SCRAP AND GREENS 



319 



On the other hand, it is a bad plan to feed the scratch grains on 
a board, once the chicks have learned how to hunt for them, be- 
cause they are likely to gorge themselves, which defeats the idea 
of the scratch grains. These grains should be sprinkled in the 
litter, where the chicks are obliged to dig and work for them. 

Green Food. — Unless the chicks are given outdoor freedom 
where they have access to an abundance of tender green shoots, 
they must be given succulence in some other form, such as lettuce, 
sprouted oats, sliced onions and tops, or ground vegetables, such 
as mangels or turnips. Chicks are very fond of onions, which 
seem to act as a tonic. 
Slice a good-sized onion 
for each fifty chicks; cut it 
so as to form rings, and the 
chicks will tussle and fight 
for them as though they 
were worms. 

Clover, alfalfa and rape 
are all excellent green 
foods for chicks, and 
wherever possible they 
should be given liberty 
where these crops are 
growing. This is the most 
convenient way to furnish 
green food, and the 

cheapest way. If a grass range is not available, substitutes must 
be found, because no brood will thrive without greens. Succulence 
supplies them with roughage for crop development, mineral ele- 
ments to aid the digestion of concentrated foods, and with certain 
tonic properties which sustain the appetite. In short, if chicks are 
given unlimited freedom on a grassy range, they are almost certain 
to thrive even if the rest of the feeding system is seriously defec- 
tive. 

Avoid Moldy Feed. — Chicks are susceptible to bowel trouble 
if given moldy or musty grain or decomposed food, therefore it 




(Courtesy C. L. Opperman) 

Fig. 210. — Colony house fitted with gasoline 
brooder. 



320 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



behooves the poultrymari to investigate his feeds very carefully. 
Grain which has heated in the bin, or allowed to become damp and 
mildewed, is the equivalent to so much poison. Bear this point 
in mind if you are offered cheap grain, because it is likely that 
the grain has suffered some such deterioration, hence the reduced 
price. Bargain foods are usually inferior goods, and the most 
expensive in the long run. It pays to get reliable stuff from a 
responsible dealer, and then to store it properly so that it will 
not spoil. 




Fig. 211. 



(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
-An orchard makes an ideal location for growing chicks. 



Finely broken grit and oyster shells should be kept before the 
chicks at all times after they are a week old. It is best not to 
put these articles before them in hoppers until this time, because 
some of the chicks are likely to mistake the grits for food and gorge 
themselves forthwith. As previously mentioned, the early 
feedings of soft food should be sprinkled with the grit; sharp 
sand will answer the purpose. 

If charcoal is not included in the mash, it is well to keep this 
before the chicks along with the grit and shells, also a box of 



FEEDING RATIONS FOR CHICKS 321 

granulated bone or bone meal. These articles are inexpensive 
and they v/ill last a long time. The charcoal acts as an absorbent 
and aids digestion ; it serves to keep the crop sweet. Granulated 
bone is rich in nitrogenous matter and makes bone and muscle; 
it keeps the chicks sturdy. 

Table XXIV. — Feeding Rations for Chicks Recommended by the 
Indiana Experiment Station 
Scratch Grains Dry Mash 

Pounds Pounds 

Cracked corn (sifted) 10 Wheat bran 10 

Wheat (cracked) 10 Middlings 10 

Oats 10 Corn meal 5 

Meat scrap 5 

Charcoal 2.5 

Plenty of sour milk or buttermilk to drink. If milk is not available, the 
meat scrap may be increased to 15 pounds in the mash. Scratch grains are 
fed in litter from the first. The mash is supplied in a hopper when the chicks 
are five to seven days old. 

Table XXV. — Feeding Rations for Chicks Recommended by the 
California Experiment Station 

Scratch Grains Pounds 

Wheat 20 

Oats (steel cut) 15 

Millet 5 

Rice 2 

Cracked corn 6 

Grit 10 

Charcoal 5 

Bone meal 5 

The ingredients are crushed to the size of millet. The mixture is fed from 
the first. Toward the end of the second week the cracked wheat and oats are 
increased until by the sixth or seventh week these two grains have replaced all 
others, except the cracked corn. From the seventh week on the grains con- 
sist of cracked corn and wheat. A mash is given after the eighth day, con- 
sisting of either of the following mixtures: 

Mash Mixture I Mash Mixture II 

Pounds Pounds 

Bran (wheat) 3 Bran (wheat) 4 

Middlings 2 Alfalfa meal 2 

Corn meal (coarse) I Corn meal (coarse) 1 

Oatmeal 1 Meat meal % 

Meat meal % Bone meal % 

Bone meal % Charcoal y 2 

Charcoal y^ 

One teaspoonful of salt is added to each gallon of either mixture. The 
mixtures are intended for chicks from ten days old to six weeks. After this 
the meat meal and the bone meal should be increased gradually, until the meal 
equals one pound of the ration and the bone meal a half pound. 



322 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Fresh Water. — Needless to say, the fountains must be kept 
full of pure, clean water at all times. If they are permitted to 
go dry, though only for a short time, the chicks soon become 
famished for a drink, whereupon they fight for room around the 
refilled fountains and in so doing seriously wet themselves. 

As soon as the flock can be weaned from artificial heat or from 
the care of the brooder, the chicks are old enough to be given a 
scratch-grain ration of whole wheat, cracked corn and other small 





(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig. 212. — The hen and her brood must be given privacy for the first couple of 

weeks. 

grains, such as milo maize, kafir corn and barley. The corn meal 
in the mash can be increased somewhat and other meals added, 
such as ground oats and wheat middlings. 

Essentials to Health. — If called upon to suggest the proper 
care of baby chicks, and my expression were limited to ten words, 
it would be something in this fashion: Keep them warm, dry, 
exercised, aired, watered, and somewhat hungry. The .question 
might then arise, how can one feed liberally and yet keep the 
chicks somewhat hungry? An answer is difficult without ap- 



CORNELL FEEDING METHODS 



323 



pearing to argue in a circle, which is really the case: If a chick is 
dry, warm, exercised, aired and watered, he is sure to be hungry, 
and when hungry he will search continually for food; and thereon 
hangs the secret of successful brooding. Keep all the conditions 
such that every chick is exercising for food, and always re- 
ceiving a reward for its pains, from dawn to dark. 

Table XXVI. — Rations and Methods of Feeding Chicks Recommended 
by Poultry Department of Cornell University 

The Ration The Method 

Mixture No. I One to Five Days 

8 pounds rolled oats. Mixture No. i, moistened with sour 

8 pounds bread-crumbs or skimmed milk, fed five times a day; 

cracker waste. Mixture No. 2 in shallow tray containing 

2 pounds sifted meat scrap a little of No. 3 (dry) always before 

(best grade). chicks. Shredded green food and fine 

1 pound bone meal. grit and charcoal scattered over food. 



Mixture No. 2 
3 pounds wheat (cracked). 
2 pounds cracked corn (fine). 
1 pound pinhead oatmeal. 



Mixture No. j 
3 pounds wheat bran. 
3 pounds corn meal. 
3 pounds wheat middlings. 
3 pounds meat scrap (best 
grade). 

1 pound bone meal. 

Mixture No. 4 

3 pounds wheat (whole). 

2 pounds cracked corn. 
I pound hulled oats. 

Mixture No. 5 

3 pounds wheat. 
3 pounds cracked corn. 



Five Days to Two Weeks 
No. 2 in light litter twice a day; No. 3 
moistened with sour skimmed milk, fed 
three times a day; No. 3 (dry) always 
available. 

Two to Four Weeks 
As above, except that the moist mash is 
given twice a day. 



Four to Six Weeks (until Chicks are on 
Range) 
Reduce meals of moist mash to one a day; 
Mixture No. 4 in litter twice a day; dry 
mash always available. 

Six Weeks to Maturity 
No. 3 and No. 5 hopper fed. One meal a 
day of moist mash if it is desired to 
hasten development. 

Further instructions: Provide fine grit, charcoal, oyster shells and bone 
from the start. Give grass range or plenty of green food. Keep chickens 
active by allowing them to become hungry once daily. 



The incubator chick is born with just as many instincts as the 
chick hatched under a hen, it is just as sturdy if the period of in- 



324 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

cubation has been properly conducted, hence there is no reason 
why it should not develop just as quickly and profitably. Like 
most of us, however, the chick is a creature of habits, some of 
which are pernicious, and generally inspired by simply watching 
the other fellow do it. For example, toe-pecking and feather- 
pulling are two of the most troublesome habits to combat in the 
brooder, and unless controlled at their inception, they will fre- 
quently lead to a heavy mortality. Therefore while it may be 
perfectly normal for a brood to develop toe-pecking, yet the 
habit must have been induced by an abnormal condition — lack 
of exercise, idleness due to exhaustion from overheating, over- 
feeding or improper feeding. Usually it is improper feeding, 
either as to quantity or an insufficient variety; not necessarily 
a lack of variety in the grains, but an improper balance of the 
nutritive elements — the greens, grains, grits and grubs. 

Last, but not least, of the suggestions for brooding — be sure 
to get chicks on the soil at the earliest possible moment. No 
matter how well equipped the brooder, Mother Earth is the 
chick's natural habitat. The chick has an affinity for dirt, — 
and it won't be genuinely happy till it gets the dirt 



CHAPTER XXIV 
CARE OF YOUNG STOCK 

The hatching season is admitted to be the critical period for 
the poultry keeper. It is the time when affairs are most pressing, 
and when the prospects for next season's flock are either secured 
or discouraged. As soon as this season is past, and the brooders 
and incubators have cooled off for the last time, say about the 
first of August, poultrymen are likely to relax their vigilance, 
which is natural enough, except that it must not be carried to 
extremes. 

When chicks reach the age of four weeks, and are fairly well 
feathered, they are as good as grown, barring accidents, and pro- 
viding they receive reasonable care. Most of them are inde- 
pendent of their mothers or brooders, and quite competent to 
shift for themselves; yet too much confidence must not be re- 
posed in them. Young chickens are susceptible of indiscretions, 
just as are children. They need a watchful eye more or less at 
all times for best results. 

The breeder who gets the most from his flock is the fellow with 
this watchful eye, to see that all are sufficiently fed, that they 
are not tortured by vermin, that they are not menaced by rats, 
hawks, crows and other pests, that none are killed accidentally and 
their bodies left to decay in some obscure place where the rest 
of the flock can eat this putrid matter, with its resultant ill effects. 
They must have an abundance of clean, cool water. They must 
have plenty of green food, and an opportunity to roam for insect 
life and mineral food. 

Exercise. — They must have plenty of exercise, especially in 
the cool morning hours or in the late afternoons. Exercise 
sharpens the appetite and encourages eating large quantities of 

325 



326 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



food, so essential to rapid development, and it also wards off 
any tendency toward leg weakness which is apt to result from 
heavy eating without exercise. Exercise on a grassy range is 
the greatest boon of all. Give fowls range and clean living 




(Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
Fig. 213. — Portable hover installed in a simply constructed coop. 



quarters and their keeper can almost afford to throw away all 
the medicine bottles. 

Over -crowding. — By all means avoid over-crowding at 'this 
season, which is saying a good deal. Where large flocks are kept 
it is not so easy as it sounds, even if sufficient buildings are 
available. Chicks have strange ways. They are gregarious; 



EXERCISE AND OVER-CROWDING 



327 



they like to assemble in large numbers. Where one goes they 
all want to go, despite the fact that there may not be room for 
them. 

However carefully the attendant may have been to distribute 
the young stock among brood coops and colony houses, if these 
buildings are on the one range, with no partition fences, the chicks 
are likely to desert some houses, and crowd into others. I never 
heard of a poultryman of any experience who was not bothered 
with this perversity. It is as sure to occur as two or three hens 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Fig. 214. — A number of broods can be kept together if the mother hens are 

confined. 



trying to crowd into one nest, though there may be a dozen or 
twenty other empty nests. 

Keeping the houses fairly far apart tends to discourage this 
practice of over-crowding, but to do so is not always possible, 
nor practicable. Where large numbers of chickens are grown a 
great deal of ground is required. And when the houses are 
spread over a big acreage, it means considerable additional labor 
to distribute feed and water, and to perform the cleaning and 
other chores. Very large farms do this work with a team, which 
is the only practical, economical method. 



328 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Abandoned Houses. — Usually the houses that are farthest 
away from the central part of the farm are the ones most likely 
to be abandoned. The reasons for this are very apparent. 
Chickens soon learn the ways of an attendant and the hours when 
feed is distributed. Day after day they watch the feeder ap- 
proach from the central part of the farm, and they go to meet 
him. The stock from the farthest points on the range comes in 
and joins the flocks close by; in a large herd they congregate, 
impatiently waiting for the dinner pail. It is natural enough, 
even if it is troublesome. 

Change Feeding Ground. — Efforts should be made to avert 
the forming of these habits, though I confess, it is not always 
possible to do so. The first step is to keep the flocks guessing 
as to where the attendant is going to make his approach. In 
other words, if practicable alternate the routine as much as pos- 
sible; approach the colony field from different points, so that no 
particular place exists as a feeding ground. On some farms this 
is easy to do, on others it is out of the question. 

Another stunt is to avoid distributing feed near the houses that 
are nearest the central part of the farm, but to carry it to the 
farthest houses. In this way the flock will follow to the farthest 
points, and when the chicks have finished, especially if it is 
the evening meal, they are more likely to remain in the vicin- 
ity of the farthest houses, and to take shelter in them as night 
falls. 

In our haste and efforts to reduce our steps it is natural to 
want to distribute the feed at the nearest point where the flocks 
can get it; but this is wrong, and will only pile up additional 
work in the long run. Short-sightedness is one of the worst 
characteristics a poultryman can have, yet it is strangely common 
in the matter of feeding. Avoid the spirit of doing a thing for the 
sake of getting it done. It is almost always fatal to success with 
poultry, just as it is a serious handicap in other lines of work. 
Watch the flock and not the clock, is a pretty good slogan for the 
chicken man. 

Unlimited Feed. — Some of the most successful poultry raisers 



WHEN THE FLOCK EATS AT WIIL 



329 



work on the assumption that the fowls know what is best for 
them in the matter of food, better than the man who does the 
feeding. Certainly this is true of some feeders, for I have seen 
some farm laborers who appeared to have as little interest in 
their tasks, and as little knowledge of the importance of their 
work, as they might have over a translation of Sanskrit. Where 
this condition obtains it is infinitely better to permit the stock to 




(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig. 215. — A covered runway which can be moved from place to place is 
best for very young chicks until they are strong enough to battle with the older 
stock on free range. 



exercise its own judgment, by keeping all feeds before them at all 
times, and giving them access to the feeds at will. 

There is another virtue about this method : the birds do not 
establish any habits of waiting for the feeder two or three times 
a day, and then gorging themselves forthwith, only to go off in 
the shade somewhere, like a snake after it has swallowed a toad, 
and wait for digestion. Instead, if they have always been ac- 
customed to feeding at will, they generally eat a little, run around, 
return and eat some more, run off again, and repeat the process 



330 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

all day long. This is the best thing for them — a lot better than 
gorging at stated intervals. 

When chickens have feed before them in hoppers situated at 
convenient places throughout the range, they have nothing to 
draw them in a herd in any one spot, consequently they are not 
so likely to find one location more attractive than another, and 
will remain pretty much as they are distributed over the range 
in the first place. The "always filled hopper" principle goes a 
great way toward eliminating the bother of over-crowding due to 
the abandonment of certain houses. 

Feed Hoppers. — There should be plenty of hoppers, of a non- 
wasteful type, and great care should be taken to make them 
water-tight and weather-proof. Some of them can be placed 
indoors. A good plan is to keep the mash hoppers inside the 
house, where the feed will not be wasted by high winds blowing 
the lighter meals away. Scratch feed hoppers may be left out- 
side, in sheltered spots, accessible to the fowls, but in such a way 
that the hoppers will have protection from sparrows and other 
thieves. 

Watertight Covers. — Positively the hoppers must be made 
watertight, not only for the economy of the thing, but to avoid 
moldy, sour or spoiled food. If the hoppers leak ever so little, 
it means musty grain, and musty grains mean bowel troubles, 
maybe serious ones, and heavy losses. Take a little extra care 
in the making of the hoppers and provide tight lids or covers. 
And the covers must extend far enough over the sides of the 
hoppers to prevent driving rains from reaching the contents. 
The hoppers should have slatted sides through which the birds 
can reach the grain without difficulty, but not large enough for 
them to crawl through and perhaps soil the feed. 

The pullet is the favorite — the "star boarder." She is espe- 
cially cherished on egg farms, and held in preference to the hen 
for fall and winter egg production — the periods of highest prices, 
which mean so much to the year's profits. 

Every poultry raiser's experience will substantiate the belief 
that a fowl's greatest egg-producing capacity is in her first 



CARE OF PULLETS 331 

laying year — the pullet year, providing, of course, all conditions 
are equal and as they should be. Therefore, under favorable 
conditions the pullet is the most profitable bird on the farm; and 
as such she is deserving of special care and attention. 

We are enjoined to get our hatches out early, in time to have 
pullets mature as autumn layers; but it is well to remember 
that age is not the only important consideration. While it is 
necessary to hatch chicks early to get mature pullets before cold 
weather sets in, especially among the heavier breeds, the feeding 
and general care of the growing stock have much to do with the 
flock's start as layers. 

To be fitted for laying a pullet must be in full flesh, of normal 
size, with a fair amount of surplus fat, and these conditions are 
obtained only by an abundance of food of the right sort. See 
special chapters on feeding. 

The pens from whicli the old stock has been removed should 
be carefully cleaned, sprayed or whitewashed before the pullets 
are turned into them; the yards should be plowed or spaded 
under, and if possible sown to green food to sweeten them. In 
short, everything must be made as fresh and comfortable as 
possible for the new tenants. Cleanliness and roominess tend 
to keep the growing pullets healthy and vigorous, which are 
essential to egg production. 

The young stock should be kept growing steadily, yet it is a 
mistake to force pullets too rapidly. If their egg-producing 
organs are developed into a state of production in advance of 
their bodies having attained full growth, they will lay under- 
sized eggs, or they may lay a few eggs and then enter a molt, 
which will postpone further egg production until late in the 
winter. By no means force pullets by excessive feeding of highly 
concentrated animal protein foods. 

Transfer Pullets Early. — Many poultrymen make the mistake 
of allowing their pullets to remain on the range, in colony houses, 
too far into the fall, sometimes until the birds are ready to lay. 
The error in this practice is this: Chickens are creatures of habit, 
and nothing disturbs them more than changing their accommo- 



332 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



dations, even though they may be moved to a more desirable. 
They will fuss and foolishly agitate themselves when placed in an 
unfamiliar building, which invariably results in a falling off in 
the egg yield. For proof of this, take a pen of fowls that are 
laying nicely and remove them to another building; then note 
the egg yield. 




(Courtesy Petaluma Chamber of Commerce) 
Fig. 216. — A husky brood; count them. 



It should be a rule to get the pullets into their permanent 
winter quarters several weeks in advance of the time they are 
expected to commence laying, and to train them to accept their 
more regulated method of living and confinement with as much 
grace as possible. 



CREMATE OR BURY THE DEAD 333 

Dangers of Poisons. — No experienced poultryman willfully 
feeds his flock on spoiled grain, because he knows that to do so is 
almost certain to result in sickness. No one with common sense 
would think of leaving poisons about, such as arsenate of lead 
or Paris green, where the fowls have access to them, or where 
children are likely to play with them. Common sense dictates 
that these poisonous things are in the class with high explosives, 
to be treated with the greatest caution and forethought, lest 
they result in some terrible fatality. In other words, we are im- 
pressed with the danger of explosives and poisons, therefore we 
handle them accordingly. 

Decayed Animal Matter. — It is unfortunate that poultry 
raisers generally do not extend this caution in the matter of 
poisons, and make it cover all such risks, since others exist 
which are almost equally as potent as the arsenate of lead, 
despite the fact that little or no attention is paid to them. I am 
speaking of the decaying carcasses of fowls and rotten eggs which 
are so often carelessly left about the premises, thrown on rub- 
bish piles, in manure pits, or in adjoining woods and fields. 

Such carcasses, in fact, dead animal matter of any kind, really 
constitute just so much poison as soon as they start to putrefy. 
If death was caused by disease, the bodies are poisonous even 
before they start to putrefy, for reasons too obvious for further 
explanation. They are the carriers of contagion, which is the 
equivalent of poison. 

Destroy the Dead. — Every authority who writes about poultry 
or gives advice on the subject is sure to say — "Destroy the bodies 
of dead fowls. Either burn them, put them in quicklime, or 
deeply bury them." 

Perhaps poultry keepers have been- told this so often that it 
has lost its power, for certain it is that the advice is not followed 
as a general practice, at least, not with the scrupulousness that is 
weighed against the skull and cross-bones poison label or the 
explosive. Yet it should be, every mite as carefully. 

Chickens Are Scavengers. — It is not a very pleasant idea to 
contemplate chickens as scavengers, though in treating a subject 



334 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



of this kind we are obliged to deal with facts and not fancies. 
Chickens are scavengers. Almost all fowls are scavengers to a 
certain degree. Whether this is the result of intense domestica- 
tion or a natural impulse, I am not prepared to say, but I do 
know that fowls will eat dead animal matter at the slightest op- 
portunity, and, what is more, they eat it with apparent relish. 




(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

Fig. 217. — Growing coop for young stock constructed from piano cases covered 
with tar paper. Note runway in front of right-hand window. 



In the early stages of decomposition, if the animal matter 
has not been infected with a malignant disease, little harm will 
result from eating it, unless eaten in large quantities, which will 
bring about bowel troubles. But as soon as an advanced state 
of putrefaction sets in, the carcass fairly swarms with bacteria — 
microbes of one kind or another, not to mention worms and the 



WHEN DISINFECTANTS ARE USELESS 335 

eggs of flies, which are highly poisonous. Taken into the bodies 
of the fowls these bacteria soon attack healthy tissue. 

Since few fowls or animals meet with accidental deaths, or 
die without cause, it is well to consider all dead animal matter as 
being highly poisonous, therefore unfit for food. 

All the disinfectants in the world are useless, and spraying, 
white-washing and cleaning go for naught if the carcasses of 
dead birds are left about the premises. We can treat disease till 
the end of time, but we can never hope to exterminate it so long 
as a single infected specimen remains on the plant. These are 
not the vaporings of a crank. They are plain truths. And the 
sooner we recognize them, the better it will be for our poultry 
and other folks' poultry as well. 

If the evils resulting from the careless handling of dead animal 
matter were a little more tangible, no doubt we would be held 
accountable unto the law for spreading contagion. The fact 
that these evils are not tangible, and we are not held technically 
responsible, does not alter the moral obligation, however, conse- 
quently we owe it to the community, as well as to our own security, 
to provide every precaution. 

Flies thrive and breed upon carrion. They are notorious germ 
carriers, traveling far and wide and doing untold damage. Your 
flock of fowls may be perfectly well, and the conditions under 
which the birds are kept may be the acme of sanitation, but if 
your neighbor's ways are negligent, it will be only good fortune 
if at some time or other your birds do not suddenly break down 
with illness of some kind, which, if it could be traced, would be 
chargeable to this neighbor. 

The Easiest Way. — Dead bodies, especially those of little 
chicks, are improperly disposed of largely because it is deemed 
easier to get rid of them by the shortest route. This is a fallacy, 
if the bodies return in the form of disease, for nothing is more 
troublesome to combat than a flock of sick chickens. In back- 
yard flocks the bodies of dead chicks are frequently thrown into 
the garbage cans, many of which are without tops. With or 
without lids to the cans, this is a bad practice. 



336 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



On farms where fowls are kept merely as a side line, the bodies 
are apt to be tossed into the manure pit. Sometimes an effort 
is made to cover them with the manure, but this does not remove 
the evil, if the bodies were infected with disease. At some time 
or other this manure is going to be spread about as fertilizer, and 
with it will go the diseased remains of the dead fowls. ' Most of 
the remains will be consumed, though not always the disease, 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 218. — Inexpensive colony growing coop built on skids. 



for some disease germs live for months in the soil, especially 
where there is heat, as in a manure pile, to further nurture them. 

Hog Pen. — Frequently dead fowls are thrown into the hog 
pen. Even when they are consumed by the hogs, this is not fit 
food for hogs. Usually some parts of the remains lie about 
long enough for other fowls to find it, and run off with it. Maybe 
a dog will steal a body from the pen. 

Pit or Well. — Some poultry keepers throw their dead into a 



PRECAUTION SEEMS TROUBLESOME 



337 



pit or abandoned well. It may be that the hole is covered over 
so that other fowls or animals cannot gain access to the carcasses, 
but the chances are that flies will have no trouble in finding them. 
Maggots, the larvae of flies, worms and other "crawling things" 
abide in putrid matter. Later these insects may be eaten by the 
chickens. 

The most careless method is to throw the dead bodies under 
buildings, into hedge rows, along fences, on rubbish heaps or 
other seemingly out-of-the-way places. Fowls and dogs, not to 
mention rats, cats, skunks, crows and other flesh-eaters, soon 





■"•■' 







¥$ 










■"S 




Aft 


~ 




il5 








1 ^w 




HnJ 



Fig. 



219. — Choose a secluded spot 
for the brood coop. 



(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

Fig. 220. — Open-front colony 
house with hinged front to exclude 
driving rains. 



learn the whereabouts of such places, and thereafter they will 
make a practice of haunting them, like scavengers. If they 
would consume all of the waste matter, it would not be so bad, 
but they do not. They eat portions, and distribute the balance 
around the grounds. 

Bad eggs, especially those removed from the incubator, are 
often left lying about, together with the empty shells and a small 
percentage of dead chicks gathered at the close of a hatch. On 
some of the largest hatcheries I have seen whole barrels of un- 
hatched eggs, in various stages of decomposition, standing un- 
22 



338 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING" 

covered outside the incubator cellars. In some cases the odors 
were so bad as to be sickening. Eggs are animal matter, and 
should be destroyed as thoroughly as dead bodies, especially 
during warm weather. 

In the winter time, when snow is on the ground, it is not un- 
common to find carcasses thrown into the snow right outside of 
the hen houses, on the assumption, I presume, that the cold will 
prevent their decay. No doubt it was the intention of these 
poultry raisers to gather the bodies before a thaw, but in most 
cases they were forgotten, or hidden by the snow, until decay 
had set in. Furthermore, cold does not kill all germs. Some- 
times it simply suspends life, which will be renewed at the ap- 
proach of warm weather. 

There are but three really effectual methods of destroying dead 
animal matter: Incineration, quicklime and deep burial. 

Placing the bodies in quicklime destroys them and all germ 
life utterly, but it is rather troublesome to do this every time a 
dead chick is found. Burial places the matter out of sight, and 
may or may not destroy it. In any event, the burial should be 
deep, so that other fowls or animals cannot dig it up. 

Cremation is the best method, not only because burning puts 
an end to any possibility of infection, but because it is the easiest 
to perform. Contrive some kind of an incinerator out of an old 
garbage can or metal receptacle, raise it off the ground about 
eighteen inches, either by iron legs or a brick or stone foundation, 
so that a fire can be built underneath, and every time you have 
any waste paper or rubbish from the house, keep it handy for 
this purpose. 

Aside from destroying the bodies of all dead fowls which are 
found in the brooders, laying houses and other buildings, do not 
forget to look around the range at regular intervals. Sometimes 
chickens are killed by strange causes, or they will go off in the 
brush and die as the result of sickness or exposure. If their 
bodies are not found by the attendant, they are sure to be found 
by the rest of the flock, which is likely to prove a serious menace, 
the importance of which cannot be over-estimated. 



CHAPTER XXV 
BREAKING UP BROODINESS 

Hen's Business is to Lay Eggs. — On farms devoted to egg pro- 
duction it is the hen's exclusive business to produce this product 
in the greatest number, and it is her manager's duty to see that 
she is equipped with every facility toward this end, with no chance 
for even a temporary cessation of activities. Where poultry is 
raised on a large scale the hen is not held responsible for rearing 
next season's flock of pullets. It is far more economical to per- 
form this work by artificial means — with the aid of incubators 
and brooders; in consequence the hen is denied any participa- 
tion in the furtherance of her species, save the laying of the egg, 
and any inclination toward these maternal ambitions must be 
promptly discouraged. 

Production is not Continuous. — Contrary, perhaps, to the 
opinion of the novice, egg production is not a sequence of certain 
quantities of correctly proportioned nutrients taken into the 
body daily, digested, assimilated and then converted into a 
regular supply of eggs — a continuous operation, as it were, un- 
interrupted so long as the hen's health and vigor are maintained, 
and her care is as it should be. 

The egg cells, scarcely visible to the naked eye, of which there 
are many hundred in the well-bred normal fowl, and some author- 
ities place the number of latent eggs at upwards of five thou- 
sand, are stimulated and developed in series or clusters, sometimes 
called "clutches" or "litters"; each series being ripened or held 
dormant in accordance with the fowl's general health and her 
capacity to consume sufficient quantities of nutrients essential 
to the stimulation of the egg-producing organs. 

The number of cells in each series varies widely with different 

339 



340 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



breeds and with different specimens, and there seems to be no 
basis for an approximation. There may be a dozen cells in a 
litter, or five dozen, and in rare cases, such as the hens that have 
attained wonderful records at egg-laying contests, fowls will con- 
tinue to lay almost without cessation, and continue to do so for 
a couple of years. Ordinarily, between clusters there is a period 




(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 
Fig. 221. — Every laying house should be equipped with a broody hen coop. 



of non-production, a sort of rest period, which varies in duration 
the same as the size of the litter. It may be a week or a month, 
or perhaps three months; and not infrequently a hen will lay 
but the one cluster of eggs and then stay off the nest for the re- 
mainder of the year. Such specimens are to be rated as drones, 
and dealt with accordingly. Birds that are impoverished and 
those that are not bred along the lines of heavy egg production are 



EGGS ARE LAID IN SERIES 



341 



usually in this class, and for which the poultryman should keep a 
sharp lookout ; they are not fitted for the highly organized egg plant. 

Intervals Between Litters. — Generally speaking, hens that lay 
short litters take but a few days to the intervals between them, 
whereas those that lay from thirty to sixty eggs in almost daily 
succession will require a much longer period, which seems per- 
fectly natural. Egg production is a severe tax on the hen's 
body; it is a secretory and a reproductive process combined, 
and as such it de- 
mands time in which 
to recuperate. 

When a hen com- 
pletes laying a litter, 
especially during the 
spring months, she is 
usually attended by a 
maternal instinct — a 
desire to hatch the 
eggs, all of which is 
very natural, indeed, 
but not in accordance 
with the poultryman's 
views on the subject. 
Producing eggs for 
table purposes does 
not concern Mistress 

Biddy. She performs her labors in response to the highest 
ideal — that of reproducing her kind, and having completed the 
first step in the operation, the laying of the eggs, she cannot 
acquit herself of the responsibility until they are transformed into 
a fluffy flock of youngsters. It is a noble resolve, but, unfor- 
tunately for the hen, it has no place on the commercial egg farm. 

Hens of the general purpose and meat varieties, such as Ply- 
mouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, Wyandottes and Brahmas are 
more addicted to this form of domesticity than are the lighter 
breeds; though the desire is pretty well founded in all classes of 
poultry, even to the so-called non-sitting breeds — Leghorns, 




{Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 

Fig. 222. — Outdoor coop for breaking up broody 
hens. Note the slatted bottom. 



342 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Campines and Minorcas. The non-sitting breeds, however, 
are not so habitually broody, nor so likely to be difficult to dis- 
courage. 

In the fall of the year strict attention is paid to the require- 
ments of the pullets to induce them to commence laying, and 
during the severe winter months that follow everything is done to 
sustain this yield. By March, which is the natural season for 
egg production, wherein almost anything that resembles a chicken 
is giving a good account of itself, the poultryman relaxes his 
vigilance over the egg basket and turns his energies toward other 
problems — mating, fertility, incubating and brooding. There 
is such an abundance of eggs at this time that this phase of the 
business seems to take care of itself. 

Watch Out for Broodiness. — March, April and May are the 
months of heaviest production, after which the egg yield will 
fall off very rapidly if the poultryman is not watchful of his 
flock— on the lookout for broody hens. From the first of March 
and well into the summer the poultry keeper should make it a 
hard and fast rule to go over all the nests every evening, an hour 
after the last feeding time is best, and remove therefrom any fowls 
that show signs of broodiness. Very few hens lay after four 
o'clock in the afternoon, and inasmuch as they have no business 
on the nests after nightfall anyhow, it is a pretty safe practice 
to take up all birds found in the nests at that time, on the assump- 
tion that they are suspicious characters, and confine them in 
quarters specially built for their accommodation, which will be 
described in another paragraph. 

Easily Broken at First. — Those who are inexperienced may rea- 
son that it seems unnecessary to make this a daily task, and that 
to go over the nests once a week or every few days will answer the 
same purpose; but such is not the case. A hen removed from 
the nest on the first day of her inclination to sit is very much 
easier to discourage than when she has been permitted to indulge 
her fancy for a week or more. She is usually rather indifferent 
about the matter at first and can be diverted with little effort, 
whereas at the end of a week the notion is a confirmed habit — 
a firm resolve, lodged crosswise in her mind and clinched on the 



EFFECT ON EGG PRODUCTION 



343 



inside, from which it is a tedious job to break her. Everyone 
who has raised chickens, no doubt, has had an opportunity to 
observe the tenacity and stubbornness of a sitting hen; her will- 
power is almost unconquerable. 

Failure to discourage broodiness is probably the most potent 
cause for the low rate of egg production in the farm flock, and for 
which the farmer has nothing to blame but his own indifference 
or ignorance. The broody hen eats and drinks very little and 
takes practically no exercise, consequently she soon becomes thin 
and emaciated and we 
are apt to marvel how 
she sustains life at all. 
She could not survive 
if it were not for her 
ability to draw upon 
her internal store- 
house for sustenance. 
It is the depreciation 
of this store of energy 
that causes her egg- 
producing organs to 
become contracted 
and dormant, and in 
the same inactive, 

shrunken condition that we find in the immature pullet or the 
fowl that is going through the molt. Her entire attitude is 
that of sluggishness; the abdominal section that was once re- 
laxed and distended, is drawn well up into her body; the pelvic 
bones that were formerly pliable and spread far apart, are rigid 
and close together; and the comb and wattles that were pendu- 
lous and brightly colored, are now pale and shrivelled. 

Time Lost. — Briefly, when the hen becomes broody she reverts 
to the state of an undeveloped pullet, and the time involved is 
very short. Once she has been reduced to this condition, and 
with all things favorable, from four to six weeks are required to 
bring her back into laying. If conditions are not favorable; 
for example, if the weather is very hot, or she is not fed the proper 




Fig. 223. — Egg-laying contest house for two pens 
of birds, Storrs, Connecticut. 



344 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

ration, or if she was never but an indifferent layer at best, the 
chances are she will not resume laying until next season. In- 
stead, it is highly probable that she will enter the molt. 

Loss of Plumage. — When a hen is permitted to get in poor 
condition, especially in warm weather, either by illness, idleness 
on the nest, or by raising a brood of chicks, her plumage, like her 
body, dries up. It loses its sleek, glossy appearance; the oil 
in the quills is impoverished, and in consequence the fowl enters 
an early molt. The early molt is the longest, sometimes re- 
quiring four and five months, so that on farms devoted to egg 
production it is seldom considered profitable to carry the early 
" molters " over to the next season, and they are disposed of as meat. 

Egg Production Is Secondary. — We might term egg production 
a supplementary function, for such it really is — secondary circu- 
lation, the result of over-stimulation. Strictly speaking, fowls 
eat to repair and restore the daily wear and tear to the body 
tissues — to maintain them in a healthy, normal state. If the 
amount of nourishment that they consume is merely equal to 
this task alone, there is none left for the work of stimulating the 
egg-producing organs to a point of activity. On the other hand, 
if there is an excess of nourishment, that which is assimilated over 
and above the daily requirements of the body, it goes into the 
development of the reproductive organs, which progress no faster 
than this nourishment is provided. 

In the late winter and early spring the hen will instinctively 
labor to bring about this excess of nourishment for egg develop- 
ment. It is the natural season for her to commence laying. 
With the advent of milder weather she will forage for tidbits 
of greens, seeds, bugs, worms and other morsels in addition 
to her regular bill-of-fare, all of which is highly nutritious and 
places her in the pink of condition. When she has completed 
laying her first clutch of eggs, especially if it be a long one, the 
chances are she will manifest a desire to hatch them. Or, she 
may continue to lay another litter and then try to hatch it. 
Certain it is that she will try to hatch at least once during the 
spring months, and maybe three or four times. 



BREAKING UP BROODIXESS 



345 



If the poultryman is not alert, the hen will steal a march on 
him, for she is very persistent. The operator must thwart her 
plans immediately, and frustrate them in such a way that she 
is induced to continue to eat large quantities of food, and thus 
maintain her appetite, keep her body well nourished and prolong 
the life of her plumage, in which case she will continue laying 
throughout the summer. 

Avoid Cruel Measures. — There are many ways of discouraging 
broodiness, but, remem- 
bering that the real rea- 
son for so doing is to in- 
duce further egg produc- 
tion, any practice or 
method that subjects the 
hen to cruelty or pri- 
vation will only defeat 
the idea, therefore it 
should not be tolerated. 
The old-fashioned ideas 
of inflicting some form of 
punishment on the un- 
offending biddy because 
she responded to a nat- 
ural impulse were wrong. 

Aside from humane reasons, to half starve or ill treat fowls, or to 
keep them from water, invites further loss in eggs, since these cus- 
toms are sure to bring about the very condition that should be 
avoided — the reversion of the egg organs to a dormant state. 

Small Flocks. — Where the birds are kept in small flocks, a good 
plan is to build a coop with a slatted bottom at the end of the 
roosting compartment, having it well ventilated and easy of 
access. See Fig. 221. Or an ordinary packing-case may be 
converted into a broody-hen coop: Remove the bottom and re- 
place it with slats, mount the box on legs that will keep it about 
six inches off the floor, and then construct a simple wire-netting- 
covered-frame for a lid. As the clucks are taken from the nests 




{Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

Fig. 224. — " A"-shaped colony house covered 
with tar paper. 



346 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

they are placed in this coop, and the sensation of currents of air 
under them instead of eggs is disconcerting, to say the least. 

The hens are unable to squat in a comfortable position, due 
to their legs protruding through the openings between the slats; 
they have no sense of privacy nor security, hence two or three 
days of this harmless pillory usually disgusts them with the idea 
of wanting to hatch a brood of chicks, and when released they 
are only too anxious to rejoin their companions in the laying 
house. It is understood, of course, that food and water are kept 
before them during their confinement, and that they are not to be 
treated like prisoners, but as hospital inmates. 

In long laying houses of the continuous type, where the birds 
are kept in large units, a section of the roosting compartment 
may be given over to the broody-hen coop and fitted with a 
temporary slatted floor. It is better, however, to partition an 
end of the house in which there is the maximum amount of sun- 
shine, and to remove all fixtures or nests that may offer secluded 
nooks. Green food in abundance should be placed in the pen 
along with fresh water and the regular grain rations, and if pos- 
sible the inmates should be induced to exercise. The presence 
of a few lively cockerels in the pen will go a long way in breaking 
the obstinate clucks. 

If the weather is mild, as it usually is when one has a large 
number of broody hens, another good plan is to place them in an 
open yard, giving them no access to a house even at night, except 
during a violent storm. Without refuge of any sort, and nothing 
to do but fuss with others of their kind, life holds very little en- 
joyment for them, so that even the most persistent members are 
readily converted. 

However troublesome it may be to remove the broody hens 
every day, positively it must be done if eggs are to be secured in 
large numbers during the summer months. It is a part of the 
general scheme of intensive progressive poultry culture — equally 
as important as artificial incubation and brooding. Furthermore, 
it means greatly increased profits, for it should be remembered 
that August eggs bring about the same prices as January eggs. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
SURPLUS COCKERELS 

Cockerels a Necessary Evil. — On poultry farms specializing 
in egg production the aim is to rear pullets. Cockerels are looked 
upon more or less as a nuisance. Yet, no matter how hard we 
try to mate our pens so that the hatches will run to females, as a 
general rule fifty per cent of the chickens are cockerels. 

It is one of those natural laws over which we have no control. 
To the beginner this is sometimes discouraging, in view of the 
fact there is not a great deal of profit to be made from the average 
flock of surplus cockerels. In fact, some breeders complain that 
their cockerels actually become a liability, and sell for less than 
the cost of production. Where such is the case, there is some- 
thing wrong with the management. 

Poor Returns. — It is true, very few breeders derive any ap- 
preciable returns from their surplus cockerels, especially from 
males of the egg-laying varieties, such as the Leghorns. This 
is due in a large measure, however, to mismanagement. Either 
the birds are not properly fattened and prepared for market pur- 
poses, or they are not marketed at the right time. Many poul- 
try raisers sell their cockerels at an early age, profit or no profit, 
regardless of the prevailing prices, in order to get them out of the 
way, retaining only the most promising specimens for future 
breeding purposes. 

It is a mistake to force these birds on the market at a sacrifice, 
since they can be turned into easy money if one has sufficient 
space in which to segregate them, and then fatten and hold them 
for greater weight and better prices. 

Separate at Early Age. — As soon as the cockerels are old enough 
for their sex to be determined they should be separated from the 

347 



348 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



pullets and kept by themselves. If permitted to run with older 
fowls, they are constantly bullied and do not receive their proper 
share of food, which, of course, retards their development. If 
they are allowed to mature with the pullets, the males not only 
get the lion's share, but they bother the pullets as well, which is 
not good for the pullets' growth. If the pullets develop slowly, 
they are not fitted for early egg production. 

Cockerels that are penned by themselves at the age of two 




(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 



Fig. 225. — Wire-covered shed for housing cockerels in warm weather, 
is built in the lee of a barn. 



Shed 



months live peacefully together, require very little attention, and 
if properly fed they can be made to put on flesh very rapidly. 
The quality of their flesh is greatly improved in this manner; 
instead of being dry and tough, it is tender and juicy, comparing 
favorably with the capon, and in place of angular bodies their 
carcasses will be plump and well-rounded. 

The people of the United States are probably the greatest 
consumers of poultry and eggs in the world, and yet we are said 



NEED FOR FATTENING 



349 



to be satisfied with a very poor quality. The average quality 
of chicken seen in the retail store and on hotel tables in this 
country is far below that found abroad — in France, England, 
Belgium, Denmark and so on. This is largely due to the great 
consumption of broilers, which, however good they may be 
in some respects, lack the tenderness and abundance of flesh 
found on fowls that have been properly fattened before killing. 




{Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 226. — Home-made fattening crate located in the lee of a building. These 
crates can be utilized for broody hens as well. 



In fact, as a general practice the fattening or finishing of poultry 
by special processes is virtually an unknown industry in this 
country. 

The common plan has been to let the fowls eat all the corn they 
will consume for a couple of weeks before marketing, but this 
method does not produce prime table poultry in a strict sense of 
the term. Corn has a distinct tendency to put on weight — this 
is unquestionable; but this weight consists mainly of a heavy 



350 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

deposit of oily fat in layers under the skin, and in masses in the 
abdominal cavity, which is not particularly desirable inasmuch 
as it does not really constitute edible meat. In fowls that are 
properly fattened this excess weight is distributed in tiny globules 
of fat throughout all the body tissues, where it belongs; conse- 
quently in cooking this fat is not wasted, but renders the tissues 
soft and juicy. 

The average American farmer is very careful to see that his 
steers and hogs are properly fattened before sending them to 
market, but to the poultry he pays little or no attention. It is 
difficult to find any excuse for this indifference, because a pound 
of grain can be converted into more poultry meat of greater value 
and in less time than through any four-footed medium. 

Fattening Feeds. — Common sense dictates that if fowls are 
confined in small pens and kept quiet they will fatten much 
quicker than if allowed their liberty. The flesh of a chicken on 
unlimited range is tough and stringy, no matter how young the 
bird may be. Ground barley or oats, with one-third corn meal, 
thoroughly moistened with skim milk, makes a splendid growing 
and fattening food. 

Cramming is practised by experts who wish to produce fowls 
of the highest quality table meat, and while it gives excellent 
results, the crate fattening method is almost as good, and will 
answer the purpose of the average poultry raiser. In the long 
run the crate method is probably the most profitable. See Fig. 
227. It is practised very extensively in England, and in recent 
years many of the large American packing houses have specialized 
in it. 

Rations. — The Ontario Agricultural College conducted a series 
of experiments in fattening poultry, and found that a mixture of 
two parts corn meal, two parts ground buckwheat and one part 
pearl oat dust, with an equal weight of skim milk, gave excellent 
results at a cost of three and a half cents per pound for the weight 
gained. Oats and skim milk made the gain cost slightly over five 
cents per pound. 

Another good fattening ration is made up of 100 pounds of 



FATTENING METHODS 



351 



corn meal, ioo pounds of wheat middlings, and 40 pounds of 
animal meal. The fowls should have access to plenty of sharp 
grit to aid digestion, and as a blood purifier, some poultrymen 
mix a little sulphur in the mash once every two weeks. At the 
close of the fattening period, which usually lasts about six weeks, 
a little tallow may be added to the feed. 

It is unquestionable that the breeder of heavy fowls, such as 
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds, has the 
advantage over the Leghorn breeder when it comes to disposing 
of cockerels. If desired, the heavier breeds can be caponized, 
or they can be held for roasters, and made to weigh six or eight 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 227. — Pouring feed into the troughs of fattening crates. 



pounds. Furthermore, breeders of heavy fowls usually hatch a 
month or two earlier than Leghorn breeders, consequently their 
young stock can be made to weigh four to five pounds to the pair 
at a time when broilers and fryers command top prices. 

Squab Broilers. — March, April and May are the best months 
for hatching Leghorns, hence cockerels from these hatches are 
not large enough to be sold as broilers or fryers until June or 
July, at which time market prices have materially declined. In 
some localities there is a fair outlet for Leghorn cockerels as 
squab broilers, weighing about three-quarters of a pound each, 
during April and May. They are sometimes called asparagus 
chickens, and the price is about a dollar per pair. 



352 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Costs. — Leghorn breeders will do well to take advantage of 
this market whenever possible, since it means a very fair profit, 
and it also offers an opportunity to relieve any congestion in the 
colony houses. It is comparatively easy to bring Leghorns to 
weigh a pound in six weeks' time, and under normal circumstances 
the cost of production, including the original value of the egg and 
its incubation, together with the labor and expense of dressing 
and shipping, should not exceed twenty-five cents. This leaves 
a net profit of twenty-five cents per bird — nothing to brag about, 



.ffe^ 




{California Experiment Station) 
Fig. 228. — Plans for a 2-compartment fattening crate. 



perhaps, yet all things considered it is a very fair return on the 
investment. This profit will defray the expense of maintaining 
a pullet for two months. 

When Prices Are Low. — When prices on young chickens fall 
below twenty cents per pound live weight, as they do in July and 
August, there is very little profit to be had over the cost of pro- 
duction, especially for Leghorns weighing about two pounds each. 
The market is usually so glutted that buyers can afford to dis- 
criminate in favor of the heavier breeds. At such times, rather 
than sacrifice the shipments, it will pay the poultryman to fatten 



SQUAB BROILERS 



353 



the cockerels for small roasters. True, the fact that they are 
Leghorns will always discount the highest prices, yet if they are 
properly fattened and neatly dressed their returns will be pretty 
nearly commensurate with their cost of production. 

Quarters. — Some breeders argue against the idea of keeping 
surplus cockerels for the reason that they cannot provide suitable 
living quarters for them. Admitting that the poultryman's 




(Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
Fig. 229. — Killing and dressing broilers — surplus cockerels. 



space is limited, the cockerels come along at a time when it is 
usually advisable to dispose of some of the older fowls for meat, 
especially the breeding males, whereupon, by combining other 
pens, there will be left one or more empty pens for the accommo- 
dation of the cockerels. See Fig. 225. Before the breeding 
season opens again, or before these pens are required by the pul- 
lets, the cockerels will have been sold or used on the home table. 
Quality Counts. — Many a consignment of poultry has brought 
23 



354 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



poor returns and bitter disappointment to the shipper simply 
because it was not uniformly graded, or because the fowls were 
carelessly dressed or improperly packed. Nine times out of ten 
the poultryman has no one but himself to blame for poor prices. 
Specimens that are thin and emaciated, malformed in any way, 
those having crooked breast-bones, or those with bruised or 
mutilated skins, should not be included in a shipment intended 
to be sold at top prices. 

It is far better to leave a few undesirable carcasses out of a 

shipment, to be used on 
the home table, than to 
include them, no matter 
how tempting it may be 
to add this additional 
weight. Remember 
that the sales account is 
going to be returned on 
the basis of quality. To 
keep the undesirables at 
home you may lose a 
few pounds, from which 
at least you derive a 
meal or two for the 
family; whereas to 
send them in the ship- 
ment may be the means 
of reducing the price a couple of cents per pound on the entire lot. 
Nothing appeals to a dealer so much as uniform quality. Each 
grade should be uniform in size, shape, color of skin and shanks, 
age and degree of plumpness. 

Scalding is the most rapid method of removing the feathers, 
and there is less loss in dressed weights than by dry picking, due 
to the absorption of a small amount of water by the body in the 
plumping process, but it is almost impossible to practise this 
method without destroying the natural appearance of the skin. 
If the water is too hot, or the fowl is immersed too long, the skin 




([/. S. De-p't Agriculture) 

Fig. 230. — Correct way to grasp head of fowl 
for killing and bleeding. Note position of knife 
in respect to veins. 



STICKING AND PICKING 



355 



is partly cooked and the thin 
scarf skin peels off, which 
causes the flesh to become dis- 
colored. If the water is not 
hot enough, it is then difficult 
to remove the feathers with-" 
out tearing the skin. The cor- 
rect temperature is about 180 
degrees. When the feathers 
are removed, singe the body 
with an alcohol flame to re- 
move hairs, and then plunge it 
in cold water to remove the 
animal heat, and to plump the 
carcass. 

Dry Picking. — It requires 
more time and skill to dry pick 
fowls, yet one is usually com- 
pensated for this additional 
trouble. Dry picked poultry 
is more attractive and brings 
higher prices, and in many 
markets no other sort will be 
tolerated, except to a cheaper 
class of trade. 

The success of dry picking 
depends on getting the right 
bleed and the correct stick. 
Hang the fowl by a cord (see 
Fig. 229) , or hold in the hands 
while sitting, seize the head in 
the left hand (see Fig. 230), 
and with the right hand run 
the blade of the sticking knife 
into the throat until the large 
artery in the left side of the 



coKjfecT cur 

AN61-E. OFj~<W 




CORRECT asr 



GROOVE /// 



EYE 
ENO OF SEAK 



(U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Fig. 231. — Anatomy of skull, showing 
position of veins and correct way to cut 
for killing. 



356 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



throat is severed. This operation is termed bleeding, and must 
be successfully done before the fowl is stuck. See Fig. 231. 
As soon as the blood spurts freely insert the knife-blade in the 
slit of the roof of the mouth and plunge it backward into the 
brain directly back of the eye. When the brain is reached, there 
will be a violent muscular contraction, whereupon give the knife 
a sharp twist and withdraw it. 







(U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Fig. 232. — Heads of fowls with lower jaw removed, showing poor attempts at 
severing veins in throat. 



If the operation has been successful, paralysis will be induced, 
and the feathers will loosen. Begin picking immediately; rough 
pick the breast and body feathers first, then wing and tail feathers 
and finally the wing and tail quills. Always remove the greater 
bulk of all the feathers before attempting to clean off the small 
feathers. Avoid pulling too many feathers at one stroke to pre- 
vent tearing the skin, and remember that tearing is most likely 



PACKING AND SHIPPING 357 

to occur on each side of the breast and on the neck. A neat job 
and rapid work are only acquired after considerable practice. 
To the uninitiated it looks very simple, indeed, until experience 
proves that there is quite a knack to be learned. 

Give No Food. — All poultry intended for slaughter should be 
kept without food for twenty-four hours, and in many states this 
is required by law. In so doing the intestines are given time to 
become empty, which helps to prevent decomposition of food 
materials within the body, and adds greatly to the keeping qual- 
ity of the carcass. Water should be supplied during this fasting 
period, for it aids in cleansing the intestines. 

A few markets prefer poultry drawn, but that sent to New 
York, Chicago and cities in general is not drawn. Undrawn 
poultry keeps best. 

Shipping. — Bearing in mind that the package frequently sells 
the product which it contains, the poultryman should prepare 
his shipments in the most attractive manner, so they will arrive 
in the best possible condition. Each box or barrel should be 
lined with paper, preferably parchment paper, which will help 
to prevent evaporation, or injury to the contents through rough 
handling. Clean rye or wheat straw may be used to advantage. 

For icing poultry in barrels in warm weather, bore a hole in the 
bottom for drainage, then place a layer of ice, then alternate layers 
of poultry and ice until the package is full. Pack the poultry 
breast down and back up, with the legs straight towards the 
center of the barrel, making a ring of fowls side by side around 
the outside. The middle of the barrel may be filled with bodies 
or with cracked ice. Over the top layer of poultry place a layer 
of ice, then a piece of burlap, and finally a layer of ice on which 
the head rests. Poultry packed in this manner can be shipped 
long distances and should arrive at its destination in perfect 
condition. In cold weather it is seldom necessary to use ice. 

Mark all shipments clearly, giving the name and address of 
the consignee, name and address of the shipper, and the contents 
of the package. A stencil is useful for this purpose; it is much 
neater than amateur printing. Besides, it is more business-like. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
CAPONIZING 

Does Caponizing Pay? — There is a wide difference of opinion 
on the subject. 

Without attempting to answer this question offhand, let us 
first consider the matter fully, and from different points of view. 

Delicious Meat. — Capons are undoubtedly a more delicious 
meat than an uncaponized bird, which is especially true of fowls 
that are held past six months of age. The flesh is sweeter and of 
a superior flavor in the capon, consequently it brings much 
higher prices. The markets of the entire country are sparingly 
supplied with capon flesh, hence there is a constant demand for it 
at uniformly good prices. There is no definite capon season, 
apparently, but most breeders market their stock after the holi- 
days, from January to March. Usually the highest prices pre- 
vail at this time. Even so it is almost impossible for the chance 
buyer to pick up any capons in the general markets, because the 
supply is seldom equal to the demand. 

Advantages of the Capon. — The capon has many advantages 
over the rooster: In the first place he is very docile, his disposi- 
tion is entirely changed, he seldom if ever fights, he declines any 
great amount of exercise, and will stand close confinement well. 
Life holds very little for him, except to eat and sit around and grow 
large and heavy. The meat of capons is more economically 
grown than that of cockerels, because more of the food consumed 
is stored up on the body as flesh and less is devoted to energy. 
What is most important, capons can be kept longer than cock- 
erels, because they will continue to grow larger and heavier, with- 
out becoming coarse and staggy. They can be kept for a year 
or longer, and sold profitably when poultry is scarce and bringing 

358 



SURPLUS MALES INTO CAPONS 



359 



higher prices. Not caponized, it is quite likely they could not be 
kept in prime condition for market longer than the fall of the 
year, at which time poultry is so plentiful that prices are usually 
low. Capons command 
from twenty-five to forty 
cents a pound, depending 
upon locality and the 
season, while the ordi- 
nary rooster brings from 
twelve to twenty-five 
cents. These are pre- 
war prices. 

Surplus Cockerels. — 
On the average farm, 
especially those devoted 
to egg production, cock- 
erels are taboo — unwel- 
comed guests. Every 
year several hundred 
thousand male birds are 
sold at an actual loss to 
producers, because poul- 
trymen believe they are 
a nuisance. It is con- 
tended that they do not 
more than pay the ex- 
pense of raising. This is 
true if the young cock- 
erels are marketed direct 
from the range without 
any special preparation. 

Cockerels sold off the range are too thin and muscular. As prime 
table poultry they should be fattened for a couple of weeks in 
crates, as described in the previous chapter. 

Increased Profits. — In our efforts to secure pullets for egg 
production, we cannot evade raising an equal number of cockerels, 




{Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 233. — Well finished market fowl. 
Note the plump breast, well covered body 
and short thighs. 



360 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



of which only a very small percentage are required for breeding 
purposes. Therefore, as a simple business principle, if we must 
raise surplus cockerels, we should strive to convert them into a 
profit, if only as a by-product. And if caponizing will bring this 
about, it is the strongest argument in favor of the practice. 
Since the poultry department at Cornell University has been 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Fig. 234. — Capons dressed for market. Conventional method of picking; the 
birds, however, are not in perfect condition of flesh. 



caponizing their surplus males, it has added several hundred 
dollars a year to the net profits. Not only are better prices re- 
ceived for capons, but there is an increase in weight over the nor- 
mal state for the same age and under precisely the same -care and 
feeding. In the same length of time it is possible to raise capons 
that will weigh almost a half more than they would have weighed 



LARGE BREEDS ARE BEST 



361 



as cockerels. At six months of age cockerels have received their 
most rapid growth. The same birds, if caponized when about 
twelve weeks old, can be made to continue their growth until 
they are eight and ten months old. 

Larger Breeds Are Best. — Cockerels of any breed can be made 
to increase in weight by being caponized; yet the larger breeds 





■ " ■ :.".-' .''••'• ™ 


K> ■■ 




dKws • 9IHBE 


i 


HH^P: '■>■ ^^^| 






^^HBmJK' jB 




-'■ijjKfpfe fl 


. - . : ■ 








^^^^fe^ "^S^^^feisHBHH 


flHfeA ,<r ^Hl 




feaa^l 





(Courtesy U. S. Dep'l Agriculture) 
Fig- 2 35- — Side view of capons dressed for market. 



are by far the most desirable. If a poultryman is going to special- 
ize in capons, rather than develop surplus males as a side line, then 
of course, the selection of the breed to be used is of primary im- 
portance. The operator must keep before him the idea of well- 
finished, well-rounded, solid meat, a bird that has the greatest 
amount of flesh for the least amount of bone, and the shortest 
shank. See Fig. 233. This ideal condition is shown by the use 



362 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

of Asiatic breeds — Brahmas and Langshans, which are still 
further improved by the admission of Plymouth Rock and English 
Game blood. 

Cross Breeds. — It is not uncommon for Light Brahma capons 
to weigh from twelve to fifteen pounds each at eight or ten months 
of age. Smaller capons, however, will more nearly supply the 
needs of the average family, consequently the Plymouth Rocks 
and Wyandottes will be found very satisfactory. White Ply- 
mouth Rocks, straight or crossed with White Cornish Game, give 
excellent results, a long full breast, clean yellow legs, and no 
dark pinfeathers. 

Another practice is to cross the Barred Plymouth Rock with 
the Light Brahma, which will give greater weight, but the dark 
pinfeathers are an objection. A bird with handsome plumage is 
more attractive as a capon, for in dressing this class of poultry 
much of the plumage is left on the body. See Figs. 234 and 

235- 

The conventional way to dress capons is to leave the head and 
hackle feathers, the feathers on the wings to the second joint, the 
tail feathers, including those a little way up the back, and the 
feathers on the legs halfway up the thighs. These feathers 
serve to distinguish capons from other fowls in the market, 
and for this reason partridge-colored birds are used to a great 
extent. The undeveloped comb and wattles are other distin- 
guishing features of the capon, also a long, rather pointed head. 

Time to Caponize. — Cockerels may be caponized at any age, 
but for the comfort of the bird and convenience of the operator, 
it is not advisable to perform the operation when the birds are 
too young or after they are more than six months old. In de- 
termining the proper time, the size of the bird should be the 
governing factor, the most desirable time being when the birds 
weigh from two and a half to three pounds, or when they are 
about three months old. The operation will succeed on older 
birds, but the percentage of deaths and slips will be greater. A 
slip is a bird that is neither capon nor cockerel, and brings no 
better price than a cockerel. 




(JJ. S. Department of Agriculture) 

Fig. 236. — Caponizing instruments: a, hollow tube cannula; b, scoop can- 
nula; c, knife; d, spring spreader; e, sliding spreader; /, tweezers; g, probe; 
h, sharp-pointed hook; i, sliding cannula; k, spoon forceps. 



363 



364 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Caponizing is simple and easy to learn; in France it has 
been practised for centuries, and practically without instruments 
except a sharp knife. Anyone with average intelligence and a 
fair amount of dexterity can learn to caponize in a short time. 
The beginner should practise first with dead fowls, and wherever 
possible it is well to first attend a practical demonstration'. The 
Agricultural Stations of some states give free lessons at certain 
seasons. 

Reliable Instruments. — The beginner should purchase a re- 
liable set of instruments (see Fig. 236), and once he has become 
familiar with the use of each instrument, and with the manner 
of making the incision, there will be little difficulty in doing the 
work. Dexterity is simply a matter of practice. The beginner 
should caponize a bird in about fifteen minutes; after one has 
gained the confidence and dexterity that come with practice, 
this time may be reduced to four or five minutes. The operation 
is performed with apparently little pain to the subject, and the 
moment the bird is released he will walk about as if nothing had 
occurred. 

Two conditions are essential to success in caponizing: One is 
that the intestines of the bird should be entirely empty, so that 
there will be the least amount of bulk in the abdominal cavity; 
the other condition is strong light, which will permit the organs 
of the bird to be clearly distinguished. Sunlight is best, conse- 
quently if the weather is favorable it is a good plan to operate 
outdoors. Withhold all food and water from the fowls for at 
least twenty-four hours before the operation. Some operators 
keep the birds off food for forty-eight hours, which insures empty 
intestines. 

The bird must be secured to the operating table in a convenient 
manner; pass a noose of cord about the legs, as shown in Fig. 
237, and tie the wings in the same way. Attach weights to the 
ends of the cords, which will hold the bird in any desired position. 

Have the instruments conveniently at hand, also a basin of 
water, to which have been added a few drops of carbolic acid, and 




{Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

Fig. 237. — Layout for caponizing. First step in the operation is to locate the 
last two ribs and make the incision. 



365 



366 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



possible, about an inch long. 



some absorbent cotton. Once the operation is started, carry it 
through as quickly as possible. 

Locate the area for the incision, between the last two ribs, 
as shown in Fig. 238, and then remove a few feathers where the 
cut is to be made. Moisten the surrounding feathers to keep 
them out of the way. Before making the incision, stretch the 
outer skin as far as possible toward the thigh; thus when the 
operation is completed the opening in the outer skin will not be 
over the cut between the ribs, inasmuch as jt will have slipped 
back to its normal position. Make the incision as neatly as 

There is little danger of cutting the 
intestines, providing the bird has 
been sufficiently starved. Insert 
the spreader, being careful that 
it presses against the ribs, thus 
springing the ribs apart and ex- 
posing the intestines. See Fig. 

239- 

The intestines are covered with 
a thin membrane called the omen- 
tum. Tear this membrane apart 
with the point of a sharp hook 
(see Fig. 240) ; push the intestines 
aside with a probe, and up against 
the backbone the glands or testicles should be in plain sight. See 
Fig. 241. These glands are a creamy yellow and about the size 
and shape of a bean. In very young birds the glands are little 
bigger than a grain of wheat. 

Skilled operators remove both glands through one incision, 
in which case the lower gland should be removed first, so that 
any bleeding will not obscure the other gland. Inexperienced 
operators remove only the upper or nearer gland, and then make 
a second incision on the opposite side of the body for the removal 
of the other gland. This takes double the time, and is much 
harder on the bird. It is not a good practice. 

Back of the gland is a large blood-vessel, the spermatic artery, 




(U. S. Department of Agriculture) 

Fig. 238. — Diagram of side of 
fowl, showing where incision should 
be made between the last two ribs. 




(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

Fig. 239. — After the incision is made the spreaders are inserted to hold the 

cut open. 



367 



368 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



which constitutes the delicate part of the operation, because if 
this artery is ruptured the bird is almost certain to bleed to death. 
The whole trick is to grasp the gland without grasping the artery 
or the tissues surrounding it. The cannula or spoon forceps is 
used for this purpose. Having grasped the gland, twist the 
instrument around several times, then tear the gland from the 
body and remove it. Repeat the operation on the other gland. 
See Fig. 242. 

After removing the glands, if the bleeding is at all profuse, it 




Fig. 240. — The hooked end of a 
sharp probe is then used to tear 
away the thin membranes covering 
the intestines. 



■f-% 




(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

Fig. 241. — When this is done the 
intestines are pushed aside, revealing 
the gland, which is about the size and 
shape of a small bean. 



is advisable to remove a portion of the blood by means of small 
pieces of absorbent cotton, inserted in the wound with the aid of 
the tweezers or probe. Be sure to remove all blood-clots, 
feathers or other matter that may have gathered inside the 
wound, then take out the spreaders, thus allowing the skin to 
slip back over the cut. See Fig. 243. 

Losses are likely to occur with the best operators. The mor- 
tality, however, should not exceed five per cent under average 
circumstances, and with a skilled person it will not be more than 



CARE AND FEEDING 



369 



two per cent. If the birds are killed accidentally, they are per- 
fectly good to eat, hence they are not wasted. 

A Slip. — Sometimes the operation appears to be very success- 
ful, yet the bird develops much the same as a cockerel. This 
condition is due to the fact that a small portion of the gland 
has been left in the body. Such specimens are termed slips. 
They are neither cockerels nor capons. 

Following the operation the birds should be placed in a clean 
pen by themselves. Give them all the water they want, and for 




Fig. 242. — The gland is grasped by 
means of the spoon forceps or can- 
nula, twisted round and removed. 



{Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

Fig. 243. — When the second gland 
is removed, or if both glands are re- 
moved at once, unfasten the spreaders 
and allow the skin to cover the open- 
ing between the ribs, as shown, and 
the operation is finished. 



the next few days keep them confined on soft feed. A few of 
them will bloat during the first week, but this is not serious and 
can easily be remedied by pricking the skin with a needle. It is 
caused by air getting under the skin, raising a slight swelling or 
wind puff. 

No stitching is required by the operation; the wound will 
heal in a few days, and in a couple of weeks it will be hard to find 
even a scar. Capons should be fed nourishing rather than fat- 
tening feed for the first few months, the object being to keep them 
24 



370 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



growing. About three weeks before marketing they should be 
fattened, either in small yards or crates. Corn meal and ground 
oats, equal parts by weight, or corn meal and middlings, moist- 
ened with water or milk, make a good mash for fattening capons 
or other poultry. 

The one great mistake in raising capons is in marketing them 
too early and not having them fat enough. After caponizing 
they can be made to put on flesh in a surprising manner, and they 




Fig. 244. — Class in killing and dressing at the Kansas Agricultural College. 



should be kept growing as fast as possible until they attain full 
size, which will take from six to ten months. 

After caponizing the comb and wattles cease to develop; the 
hackle, saddle feathers and tail feathers grow very long, and the 
plumage assumes a heavy, glossy appearance. Capons never 
crow, manifest no interest in the rest of the flock, and are 
generally despised for their peculiarities by other fowls. They 
are exceedingly gentle and tractable, and often show a fondness 
for little chicks. In fact, there are instances in which they have 
been utilized in rearing broods of chickens. 

Their behavior with chicks, in the main, is very much like that 



COSTS AND PROFITS 371 

of a hen ; such differences being of a minor character and difficult 
to distinguish clearly from those of a broody hen. They will 
cluck, though in an imperfect way, hunt food for the chicks, and 
attack anyone who approaches the brood. 

Darwin states that capons are said to incubate eggs as well 
as care for chicks, but the writer has no proof of this statement. 
In fact, tests of capons are not. extensive enough to warrant de- 
finite conclusions, but it would appear entirely plausible that the 
brooding instincts are after all not necessarily female character- 
istics. Male pigeons, for example, assist in brooding and rearing 
the young, as do guinea cocks and many wild birds. 

In housing capons very little space is required, providing the 
quarters are kept clean. About two square feet per bird is 
sufficient. They require very little care; one man can easily 
take care of three to five thousand capons, which is a point in 
favor of the practice. 

The cost of feeding a capon to maturity, or for twelve months, 
is from eighty cents to a dollar and a quarter, depending upon the 
cost of feed, and whether a fair portion of the daily fare is picked 
up on the range. Add to this the cost of the operation, let us 
say, five cents, and the cost of the chick at hatching time, and 
we have a total cost of about a dollar and a quarter. Assuming 
an average weight of eight and a half pounds for a twelve months' 
bird, which is very conservative, with a selling price of thirty 
cents a pound, the market value at killing .time is two dollars 
and fifty-five cents. This leaves a net profit of more than a 
dollar and a quarter — a profit that compares very favorably 
with the results obtained from a heavy laying hen. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
BREEDING PRINCIPLES 

In the minds of many who raise chickens and other fowls there 
is but one idea and one kind of breeding — that of mating males 
and females, regardless of type, strain, variety, prolificness or 
relationship. Needless to add, that such matings sooner or 
later — usually sooner — prove of little value to their owner, and 
are finally completely dissipated. It is Nature's way of eliminat- 
ing the unfit. 

Definitions of Breeding Methods. — To be precise, there are the 
following methods: In-breeding, line-breeding, out-breeding, and 
cross-breeding; and — shall we say — no breeding at all, meaning 
rank mongrelism. 

Line-Breeding. — Primarily, it is not advisable to make a 
practice of mating birds more closely related than first cousins, 
and the more distant this relationship can be drawn apart, the 
better the chances for success. In making a start with a flock 
of fowls, however, where one wishes to preserve the same strain 
of blood, or in creating a new breed, it is usually necessary to 
breed pretty close for a number of years, or until certain quali- 
fications become intensified and fixed. If this breeding of re- 
lated birds is done intelligently, with the view of fixing superiority 
in color, shape and so on, it is called line-breeding. If the breed- 
ing of related stock is done indiscriminately, and brothers and 
sisters are bred together for generations for no particular purpose, 
it is called in-breeding. 

In other words, line-breeding, or breeding in line, is keeping 
to the same ancestry — the same blood lines, without the disas- 
trous effects of in-breeding. It is carefully selected, systematic 
in-breeding. 

372 



EXCHANGING MALES 



373 



Out-breeding is a term applied to the practice of introducing 
new blood every year, but blood of the same breed. Cross- 
breeding is introducing entirely new blood of a distinctly different 
breed. 

New Males. — Through fear of the flock degenerating many 
poultry raisers consider it absolutely necessary to bring in new 
males each year. Very often they make a practice of exchanging 




(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig. 245. — Pullets should be placed in their permanent laying quarters as soon 
as they show signs of maturity. 



males with nearby farms, which is the vogue among farmers, 
especially. This is inspired by the right idea, but it is likely to 
be accompanied by trouble. If it is desirable to introduce new 
blood, the rule should be to do so — not just because it is new 
blood, but because it is superior to your own in vigor and other 
ways. 

Speculation. — It is very difficult to raise standard bred birds 
if new blood is added to the flock each year. You may buy a 



374 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

pure-bred male to mate with your pure-bred females, and later 
find that the two strains failed to nick properly. That is, the 
mating may throw offspring with defective combs, dispropor- 
tion or poor color, which will take several generations of special 
breeding to eliminate. In short, the advent of new blood is a 
speculation. 

A better way to introduce new blood is to take two years to 
do it, and experiment with individuals. Purchase a few hens of 
the desired strain and mate them to your best males, or secure 
a couple of outside males and mate them to your best females; 
then study their offspring for a year, and if satisfactory, mate the 
new blood to the balance of the flock. 

There is no evidence to prove that line-breeding initiates de- 
generacy, providing reasonable care is exercised each year in 
selecting only vigorous breeders, and there is a large number of 
fowls from which to choose. The danger becomes even more 
remote if two divisions of the same blood are kept going year 
after year. This consists of keeping two distinct strains or 
matings on the same farm, both of which have a common an- 
cestry, but which grow farther apart every year. 

Every season the males of one line are mated to the females of 
the other line, and vice versa, these lines having been started by 
mating the best male to the best female, and continuing the 
second generation by mating the original male to his daughters, 
or the original hen to the son. Proceeding in a similar manner 
for the third generation, the original male is mated to grand- 
daughters and the original hen to her grandson, which practically 
eliminates from each line its original respective sire or dam. It 
is difficult to explain this system of line-breeding in writing, but 
if you will make a chart of it and get down to actual figures, you 
will soon see that it is very simple. 

Cross-Breeding. — Some time in the career of every poultry- 
man there is the temptation to cross-breed with a view to im- 
proving certain qualities. In most instances the crossing of 
two pure breeds is a mistake. The appearance alone of a flock 
of cross-bred fowls when compared with the pure breeds whence 




375 



376 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



they originated should convince any one that this is a bad plan. 
The first cross is not so bad, as a rule, and occasionally it possesses 
some slight advantages in egg production or weight, but these 
hybrids should not be mated in any way, either among them- 
selves or back to their parents. Therefore, to continue cross- 
breeding it is necessary to maintain two distinct pure breeds year 
after year, and to destroy the hybrids as soon as they cease to be 
profitable. This occasions many separate houses and yards, 
for the sexes of each pure breed, and for the crosses, a practice 
that is both expensive and troublesome. 

Grading Up Mongrels. — Sometimes it is profitable to grade up 








(Courtesy Maryland Experiment Station) 
Fig. 247. — "Busy moment for the trap nests." 



a flock of mongrels, such as are found on many general farms, 
by introducing pure bred males. Pure bred males of the same 
variety should be used year after year, however, and not the males 
from the offspring of the first cross. In the course of four or 
five generations, with careful selection, it is possible to grade up 
the original flock of mongrels to the level of the pure bred male 
in appearances, but scarcely in breeding qualities. There is 
always more or less chance of a reversion to type in breeding 
from mongrels, hence it is often cheaper in the long run to com- 
mence with pure bred stock. 

Barnyard fowls are better than none, of course, but why keep 



TO CHOOSE BEST LAYERS 



377 



mongrels when pure bred birds can be had for almost the same 
price. Those who appreciate the value of uniformity in body 
and eggs, and who realize the need of transmitting these qualities 
to the progeny, find no argument in favor of the manure pile 
diggers. There are more beauty and more dollars in the thorough- 
bred — be it hog, horse, cow or fowl. 

Heavy Laying Strain.— The trap nest is the only positive index 
to the hen's performance as a layer. It has furnished the only 
means of establishing many facts leading to a more or less definite 
conception of just what characteristics belong to the heavy layer, 
also, the qualifications of the fowl possessing the faculty of trans- 




(Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 
Fig. 248. — Brood coop with slatted run for chicks. 



mitting certain desirable qualities to its offspring. In fact, the 
trap nest has collected such a vast amount of data, that it is now 
possible to dispense with its service, if need be, and still profit 
from it. In other words, we are now able to verify certain ex- 
ternal indications, actions and habits as belonging to this or that 
type of fowl. 

Thus, the progressive poultryman who wishes to mate his birds 
along definite lines, but who is not in a position to trap them, can 
select his breeders so that their increase in efficiency compares 
favorably with flocks that are trap-nested. 

Relation of Size and Shape. — No sensible person questions the 
importance of shape and size in the matter of breeding horses 



378 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

and cows. One does not mate Percheron stock for speed in 
horses, nor Hereford cattle for a dairy farm. The same idea holds 
true of poultry. The general shape of the laying type of chicken 
is agreed upon as a V or wedge when viewed from the top, side 
and rear, the supposition being that in this conformation the 
egg-producing organs have the greatest opportunity for develop- 
ment. This shape is sometimes called by the term Capacity, 
which really amounts to abdominal-power. 

Capacity means the ability of the crop and digestive tract to 
receive, consume and assimilate large quantities of food. Con- 
tinuous egg production is an intensive, exhausting process. It 
necessitates the consumption of vast quantities of food, other- 
wise it would be physically impossible for the hen to turn out an 
egg a day. This is only common sense reasoning. Beware of 
the small eater, or the hen that goes to roost on a crop half full 
of food. She is either a defective, a drone or an invalid. 

The depth of the abdomen, as well as the length, indicates 
Capacity. Hence the good layer is described as having a long 
body, deep in the keel, which is another term for the breast bone. 
To ascertain or measure the abdominal capacity of a hen, the 
fowl is grasped by the legs in the left hand, and its head and wings 
are held under the arm in a horizontal position in what is ad- 
mitted to be the correct method of holding or carrying a chicken. 
Then the fingers of the right hand are placed on the abdomen 
between the two pelvic bones on either side of the vent and the 
rear of the breast bone. This distance will be found to vary 
quite considerably with different hens. In some the width of 
one finger will be found to be sufficient to occupy the space be- 
tween the pelvic bones and the breast bone, in others two fingers 
will be required, in others three, four, five and six fingers, and in 
rare cases seven fingers. 

The pelvic bones are sometimes called the lay bones or vent 
bones. They, too, are measured for the distance or spread be- 
tween them ; but do not mistake the abdominal measurement for 
the distance between the pelvic bones. This latter test is for 
another purpose. The tips of the fingers are used for this test, 



WHAT TO EXPECT IN COLOR 



379 



whereas for the abdominal measurement the widths of the fingers 
are used between the tips and the knuckles. 

Further indications are found in a large comb and wattles of 
good color, a high tail rather than one carried low, medium-size 
head with a short, stocky beak, rather short legs well spread apart, 
and as much weight as the specimen should have to conform to 
the standard requirements for a particular variety. 

Under-size specimens are seldom exceptional performers. 











{m§k$m-ti#Mfr 








* 




?M 


p.; 

VfvJ 




HS|' f ***** , V <P$Ki? •dfflB&mtk 




. ■ £ 


' | ^ , *.JH^ 





{Courtesy Petahima Chamber of Commerce) 
Fig. 249. — Leghorn pullets on a California poultry ranch. 



The same is true of over-developed birds, though of the two con- 
ditions, small and large, the latter is the least objectionable. 
There are many exceptions to this rule, of course, just as there 
are many exceptions to every rule. The findings in this chapter 
are based on the general run of fowls, and must be considered as 
such, or averages. 

Next to shape, color is probably the most reliable sign of a 
hen's ability as a layer. And the chief advantage of this test 



380 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

lies in the fact that it is discernible without having to handle the 
bird. 

Color. — In virtually all of the yellow-skinned breeds of chickens 
the shanks, beak and flesh of the posterior parts of the birds are 
a rich yellow at the commencement of laying, and gradually 
undergo a fading out as the laying progresses, until these parts 
become a real pale color, sometimes pink, or white, as the laying 
season advances. This change in" color is so consistent, in fact, 
and so quickly made, especially in the region of the flesh sur- 
rounding the vent, that it will be clearly apparent even to the 
layman. 

The theory cf this test is based on the fact that the same color- 
ing matter that gives the shank, beak and skin its rich yellow 
look is also used in the color of the yolks of eggs. Heavy layers 
produce eggs faster than they can supply the coloring matter 
for the shanks, beak and so on, consequently the color becomes 
lighter and lighter, until it is frequently scarcely visible. 

Furthermore, hens that are not in laying condition are prone 
to store up a certain amount, and sometimes a very large amount, 
of fat in the region surrounding the vent, and this fat, being of a 
rich yellow color, transmits its color to the flesh. When these 
hens start to lay and lay heavily, this fat is drawn upon to supply 
the body tissues with the necessary energy, until its supply is 
virtually depleted, in which case the skin loses its former rich 
yellow appearance. 

In selecting hens by the color test, allowances must be made 
for the natural difference in color between different breeds and 
different individuals of the same breed. For example, it is 
manifestly unreasonable to compare the color of a Rhode Island 
Red or Barred Plymouth Rock with a White Orpington or White 
Leghorn. The color test should be made relatively and with the 
exercise of much common sense. 

An examination should be made at the commencement of 
laying, and not during the molt or when the birds are immature, 
and the degree or shade of color carefully noted. Later, when 
the flock should be laying heavily, say about April first, the color 




381 



382 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

is observed again, and the hens which have little or no color in 
the parts mentioned may be selected as the best layers. 

To prove this, if you observe any birds which are noticeably 
yellower than the others, transfer them to a separate pen and 
note if they are not poor layers. If you have trap nests, these 
ideas are easily verified. 

Conduct and Other Indications. — It is pretty generally estab- 
lished that pullets which begin to lay early in life, providing they 
are fully matured, are pretty sure to be the most prolific members 
of the flock. Ordinarily this means that the pullets which com- 
mence laying in the fall, before snow flies, are the most desirable. 
Fowls that fail to start production until after Christmas seldom 
attain high scores. By high scores is meant records of excep- 
tional merit, say over 150 eggs a year. It usually follows, also, 
that pullets continuing to lay late into the fall, thereby post- 
poning the molt until cold weather is at hand, are almost without 
exception heavy producers. 

Late Molters. — Hens that have a nice new coat of feathers by 
July look well, but they are not often profitable. The late 
molters, those that look ragged and dirty when the others are 
sleek and clean, are almost always the best layers in the flock. 
Moreover, it will be noted that the late molters get through with 
this task very quickly, seemingly, which is an appreciable saving 
in time. 

The appetite and general conduct of the hen are other indica- 
tions of productiveness. The heavy layer is the first off the perch 
in the morning and the last to go to sleep at night. She is active, 
constantly searching for food, and when observed on the roost 
after dark, she will be found to have a very large crop tightly 
packed with food. It is also found that the hens which have the 
most confidence in their keeper, and are not foolishly disturbed 
or frightened, are the most consistent performers and the most 
reliable breeders. 

Importance of the Male. — It is said that the male bird is 
half of the flock, meaning, of course, that his characteristics will 
be transmitted to the offspring in equal proportion to the hens, 




383 



384 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



though the latter may outnumber the male fifteen to one. This 
is not an idle thought; it is true. In fact, in some cases it is 
highly probable that the influence of the male is even greater 
than a half — maybe three-quarters. 

Prepotency of the Male. — This belief is certainly true of the 
male's ability to transmit type and color to his progeny.' There- 
fore, if he can dominate certain important characteristics, is it 
not reasonable to suppose that he may dominate all of them? 
We assume, of course, that to so do, his vitality and constitu- 




3^ 



SIDE ELEVATION 



EMO ELEVATIOfl 

















1x4 


fix* 


ran 




















































1 



j4XZ"CLtlT5 _j{? 




rUOOB. PLArt DETAIL ofim GATE 

(California Experiment Station) 
Fig. 252. — Plans for a catching coop. 



tional vigor are equally as strong as the female's, if not stronger. 
More than that, we assume that he possesses the faculty or capa- 
city of transmitting his qualities. This qualification is sometimes 
spoken of as prepotency. 

Like Does Not Always Beget Like. — One of the greatest im- 
pediments to the successful breeder of poultry is the inability to 
select male birds of the required type. There is an old saying 
that "like begets like." In a general sense this is true, but not 
always so, because of which the idea becomes a subject worthy 



TYPE AND NUMBER OF MALES 385 

of study. We often see children who resemble and act like one 
parent, let us say the father, while others resemble and act like 
the mother. And yet some children will be like neither of the 
parents, nor like any of their immediate kin. Breeders of horses 
and cattle and other branches of livestock are fully aware of the 
variations in offspring in this respect, and it is probably because 
of their persistent quest of knowledge along these lines that they 
have made so much more progress in scientific breeding than 
poultrymen. 

Among those who have never given mating other than casual 
thought, and such persons are in the majority, there is the belief 
that heavy layers are bound to produce chicks which will develop 
into heavy layers. In their minds, to produce a heavy laying 
strain all that is necessary is to trap-nest the flock, and breed 
only from such hens as have made a certain record. This is a 
step in the right direction; the idea is a splendid one, and makes 
for careful selection. But, unfortunately, it does not go far 
enough. In the first place, we cannot trap-nest male birds; and 
pedigree, while useful and essential, is not alone a sufficient basis 
for the selection of that element which is to dominate future 
generations, and probably the success or failure of the poultry- 
man. 

Maine Experiment. — Some years ago the Maine Experiment 
Station endeavored to establish a 200-egg strain of fowls by 
breeding only from those which laid the most eggs. The experi- 
ments extended over a number of years, the plan was well con- 
ducted, it received the most favorable attention, and everything 
was done to further the idea. The work was finally abandoned 
as a failure. Those in charge of the work were trying to establish 
an extreme in egg production, by breeding from high-producing 
hens. They failed to appreciate the need for that other faculty — 
prepotency — the capacity to transmit high-producing qualities. 

Number of Males. — Let us first consider the ratio of males to 

females. No fixed rule can be given, because the breed, size of 

the flock, living quarters, extent of range and the general health 

and vigor of the stock are all determining factors. For example, 

25 



386 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



the Mediterranean breeds, such as the Leghorns, are usually 
mated one male to fifteen females, providing the flocks are single. 
In the American or general-purpose class, it is customary to mate 
one male to about ten females; and in the Asiatic or meat class, 
it is advisable to use one male to six or eight females. 

Single Flocks. — As previously mentioned, these ratios apply 
to single flocks — pens in which but a single male is to be used. 
In larger flocks the ratio of males to females may be greatly re- 




(Courtesy V. S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Fig. 253. — Handy brood coop made from rough lumber, small sliding window 

serves as a door. 



duced. The reason for this is easily understood. In a flock of 
fifteen Leghorns there may be two or three hens uncongenial to 
the male, or the male may be uncongenial to two or three females 
who will fight him away from them, in which case the fertility 
from such a pen will run about eighty-five per cent. 

In a flock of 35 females to 2 males there is almost certain to be 
rivalry or jealousy, which tends to eliminate favoritism, and 
thereby increases the fertility. In a flock of 60 hens to 3 males 
there is still greater rivalry, while in a unit of 500 hens to about 



OUTWARD QUALIFICATIONS 387 

20 males little, if any, discrimination is found, and the fertility 
of the eggs should run ninety-five per cent or better. 

The same general ratio applies to the heavier breeds, but in no 
case can they be expected to equal the Mediterraneans in the 
matter of fertility. The heavier breeds have a more sluggish 
nature, and they are naturally less active fowls. From the 
writer's experience, sixty-five per cent fertility in the Asiatics 
is equal to seventy-five per cent in the Americans, or ninety-five 
per cent in the Mediterraneans. 

In selecting males for breeding purposes the first qualities to 
be considered are those in plainest evidence, in other words, the 
general appearance of the birds. If a specimen has malformed 
feet, wry tail or serious squirrel tail, brassiness or other color 
defects, lopped comb or exceedingly ponderous or poorly shaped 
comb, under-developed ear lobes or wattles, or if a bird is ab- 
normally large or small, noticeably disproportionate and un- 
gainly, it goes without further argument that he should be dis- 
carded. 

A fowl's actions is one of the best guides to its breeding ability. 
Males that are too greedy, or those that are so gallant that they 
will not eat until the hens have helped themselves, are likely to 
prove of little value in the breeding pen. The former are apt to 
become over-fat, due to over-feeding, and the latter under-fed 
and anemic. Crowing is an excellent indication of vigor and 
vitality, and should always be borne in mind in selecting breeding 
males. It characterizes physical strength and masculinity. The 
desirable breeding cockerel is always on the alert, strikingly erect 
in carriage, aristocratic and combative — a good fighter, and one 
who believes in crowing about it. Fear and physical weakness 
usually go together. A cowardly bird, or one that becomes 
unduly excited, which amounts to a rattle-brained nature, should 
never be placed in the breeding pen. He is too apt to be a 
degenerate. 

Some Naked Truths. — Selecting breeders from the fancier's 
point of view — the show room — is more discriminating, perhaps, 
than for commercial purposes, yet it is also more superficial. 



388 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Color, shape, carriage, texture of plumage, comb, wattles and 
ear lobes are the essentials to success in the exhibition; but as 
they constitute a study in themselves, we will not attempt to 
cover them in this chapter, which is intended more for the com- 
mercial poultry raiser. 

Having selected a group of birds of the desired appearance 
and most precocious habits, final judgment is passed upon their 




{Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig. 254. — Practical method of catching fowls. Crate is placed against small 
entrance door, through which the chickens are driven into the crate. 



physical qualifications — literally speaking, their naked truths. 
There is a distinct correlation between the different parts of a 
fowl, make no mistake about this. The body of the vigorous 
fowl is broad, deep and blocky, as contrasted with the long, thin, 
slender type. And since the fowl's plumage is often very de- 
ceiving, they must be carefully handled. In a sense they must 
be measured. 

In a foregoing paragraph on selecting pullets for heavy egg 



MALE'S SHAPE RESEMBLES FEMALE'S 389 

production we emphasized the following requirements: Large 
crop and abdominal capacity; thin pelvic bones that are pliable 
and well spread apart; a fairly long back, depth in the keel and 
width between the legs. In selecting males as breeders for heavy 
egg production, the same analysis should be applied to their 
anatomy — relatively, of course, for the male never has the spread 
of pelvic bones nor the abdominal capacity of a hen of the same 
size. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGG 

Embryology. — It is certain that the majority of poultry keepers 
do not know as much about the formation and development of 
the egg as they should. Yet this is a very important subject, 
a knowledge of which is essential before one can really exercise 
intelligent care and feeding. To do certain things blindly or on 
a guesswork principle is archaic; they may be correct, and the 
results therefrom may be entirely satisfactory up to a given point, 
when, without any warning, trouble may come. Then, if the 
foundation of one's knowledge is meager, or perhaps there is no 
foundation at all, which is frequently the case, the poultryman 
is at a loss for a solution or remedy. It is like trying to run an 
engine without some understanding of its construction; when 
trouble occurs, instead of being able to repair or adjust the defect, 
the situation becomes aggravated and serious. 

Every phase of the poultryman's work should have a definite 
purpose, and in view of the fact that the egg is the first stage in the 
production of fowls, whether for meat, eggs or the show room, it 
behooves him to have at least a general idea of embryology. 

Some hens are absolutely sterile; of this there is no doubt, 
but they are rare, and are to be compared with any other mal- 
formation. Others have the power to produce a few eggs in 
short litters, followed by long rest periods, whereas others have 
reproductive organs which are so strong and easily stimulated 
that they lay almost without cessation, and continue to do so for 
a couple of years. In fact, they seem almost to have a super- 
natural power. 

Prolific Power of a Hen. — Some experts tell us there are more 
than 7,000 latent eggs in the normal hen, but whether or not this 

390 



OVARY AND OVISAC 391 

is correct we need only concern ourselves with about 700. The 
number is not a fixed quantity, and those which will be developed 
is still less certain. The prolific power of a hen is largely an in- 
herited tendency, the result of careful selection and breeding, made 
potent by careful handling and feeding. Both elements are abso- 
lutely essential, as we have shown in preceding chapters. 

The ovary or egg cell cluster which contains the latent eggs is a 
muscular tissue on the left side of the spine. In it, in various 
stages of development, from the full-sized yolk, ready to be de- 
tached, to the cells which are so small as to be invisible without 
the aid of a microscope, are the yolks or ova. When a yolk is 
fully matured and ripe, it bursts from the tough membrane of the 
ovisac and enters the neck of the oviduct, a convoluted, muscular 
tube some twenty inches long, wherein the albumen or white is 
deposited, and later the shell is formed. See Frontispiece. 

The ovisac is lined with blood-vessels, yet provision is made in 
the healthy, normal hen that when the yolk ruptures this mem- 
brane the blood-vessels are parted to one side and not broken. 
It occasionally happens, however, either through an injury to the 
fowl, fright or weakness due to a debilitated condition, that one 
of the blood-vessels may become slightly ruptured, whereupon a 
blood clot will escape with the yolk and later be incorporated with 
the albumen. This accounts for spots of blood found in strictly 
fresh eggs, and which have led many consumers to believe they 
have purchased partly incubated eggs. 

Double Yolk Eggs. — It sometimes happens that two yolks 
mature and burst through the ovisac at the same time; in this 
event they are likely to become encased with albumen together, 
and subsequently surrounded by the same shell, producing a 
double-yolked egg. Occasionally a mass of albumen will be de- 
posited without yolk or shell, or it may be laid with a perfectly 
formed shell but without a yolk; or a yolk will be laid without 
albumen or shell, and in rare cases a perfectly formed egg has 
been found within an outer egg shell. These freak conditions 
are brought about by improper care and feeding, but more 
especially by fright, neglect or injury. 




I, Tong ue; 2, 
pharynx; 3, first 
portion of esopha- 
gus; 4, crop; 5, 
second portion of 
esophagus; 6, suc- 
centric ventricle; 
7, gizzard; 8, ori- 
gin of the duoden- 
um; 9, first branch 
of the duodenal 
flexure; 10, second 
branch of same; 

II, origin of the 
floating portion of 
the small intes- 
tine; 12, small in- 
testine; 13, free 
extremities of the 
caecums; 14, in- 
sertion of these 
two culs -de - sac 
into the intestinal 
tube; 15, rectum; 
16, cloaca; 17, 
anus; 18, mesen- 
tery; 19, left lobe 
of liver; 20, right 
lobe of liver; 21, 
gall-bladder; 22, 
insertion of the 
pancreatic and 
biliary ducts; 23, 
pancreas; 24, dia- 
phragmatic aspect 
of the lung; 25, 
ovary in a state 
of atrophy ; 26, 
oviduct. 



Fi g- 2 55- — Diagram of digestive apparatus of a fowl. 



392 



SPOILED FRESH EGG 393 

Held Eggs Within the Body. — It is not positively established 
whether a hen can of her own will stop the development of the 
yolks prior to their entrance to the oviduct, and it is hardly 
likely that she can, but it is certain that she can control the egg 
after that period. She can retain it for a considerable time after 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep'l Agriculture) 
Fig. 256. — Outer shell membrane of fresh egg. Magnified 150 times. 

it is completely formed, whereupon, instead of the life germ re- 
maining dormant in the fertile egg after it is laid and until such 
time as it is subjected to the proper uniform temperature for 
incubation, it will commence to develop within the egg within 
the hen. Obviously, although such an egg may be freshly laid, 
it is not a fresh egg. On the contrary, it is a spoiled egg; 



394 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

sometimes very badly spoiled, which is apt to lead to diffi- 
culties with the customer who has been unfortunate enough to 
receive it. 

Egg-Bound. — Hens that delay their laying in this manner are 
usually egg-bound, a condition brought about through injudicious 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 257. — Inner shell membrane of fresh egg. Magnified 150 times. 

feeding, injury and by the drying up of the secretions in the 
cloaca, where the egg rests before it is laid, thus failing to assist 
in the passage of the egg. Over-fat hens and pullets producing 
their first eggs are apt to be troubled in this manner. 

The most common symptoms are repeated trips to the nests, 
accompanied by prolonged squatting and straining, and in ex- 



HOW THE SHAPE OF AN EGG IS DETERMINED 395 

treme cases a fowl so afflicted will crawl with her body upright 
and her tail dragging on the ground. 

The shape of an egg is largely determined by the contours in 
the oviduct in which it is cast. During the passage of the yolk 
in the oviduct it is pushed forward by the muscles of this 
tissue, at the same time receiving a deposit of albumen. The 
oviduct being twisted and contracted, imparts a turning motion 
to the yolk as it advances, which causes the albumen to be formed 
in layers. These layers are sometimes visible in a raw egg, but 
are better seen in a hard-boiled egg. 

Chalaza. — Two principal cords or fibers, technically known as 
the chalaza, support the yolk in about the center of the al- 
buminous mass, and serve to protect the yolk from injury by 
undue jarring or rough handling. See Fig. 258. We have all 
noticed, perhaps, that whatever way an egg is turned the yolk 
quickly assumes its original position; this is due to the influence 
of the chalaza, and to the fact that the yolk, containing a large 
amount of fat, which is lighter than the albumen, has a tendency 
to float upward. 

Shell Membrane. — When sufficient albumen has been se- 
creted, at which time the entire mass has reached the lower part 
of the oviduct, the shell membrane is formed, after which it 
passes still further and the outer membrane is added. Here, 
glands w T hich contain a secretion of carbonate of lime and other 
mineral substances, also the color pigment, deposit their liquid, 
which quickly hardens the outer membrane. This hardening 
process is very rapid, and frequently takes place while the hen is 
on the nest. 

Bloom of the Egg. — The egg has now reached the lowest part 
of the oviduct, known as the cloaca, whence it is ready to be laid. 
While in this section it is covered with an oily secretion which, 
as previously mentioned, aids in the delivery of the egg. This 
secretion dries almost immediately the egg is laid, and gives it 
the bloom or fresh appearance found in a newly laid egg. When 
eggs are washed this bloom is destroyed, or partly so, which 
makes washed eggs rather easily detected by experienced handlers. 



396 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



5 8 4- 




Texture of Shell. — It will be noted that the shell of an egg is 
exceedingly porous, which enables the embryo to take in oxygen 
through the shell, otherwise it could not breathe. See Fig. 256. 
During the early stages of incubation a network of blood-vessels 
surround the inner membrane of the egg, close to the shell. See 
Fig. 257. These blood-vessels absorb the oxygen and act as the 
respiratory apparatus for the embryo until about the nineteenth 
day of incubation, when the lungs are completed and brought 

into use. The oily secre- 
tion deposited on the shell 
in the cloaca tends to stop 
up the pores temporarily, 
so as to prevent undue 
evaporation of the con- 
tents of the egg, and to 
keep the pores clear. Ob- 
viously, a hatching egg 
should not be washed; 
and if very badly soiled it 
should not be used for 
hatching purposes at all. 
To return to the yolk, it 
must be very apparent 
that if production is to be 
successfully carried out, 
the yolk or ovum, which is 
the real beginning, must be carefully and normally developed, 
otherwise the succeeding processes are all thrown out of kelter. 
Egg making is a very exhaustive process, if we stop to consider that 
a profitable hen is expected to lay about 150 times a year, which 
is equivalent to almost five times her weight; hence the drain 
on her system is enormous. The activity of the ovary, then, 
depends upon the health of the bird. 

The over-fat hen does not lay because over-fatness is an indi- 
cation of improper or immoderate feeding, usually accompanied 
by lack of exercise. The poor, anemic, emaciated hen cannot 



Fig. 258. — Sectional view of fowl's egg. 

1, Yellow yolk composed of successive layers; 

2, vitelline membrane; 3, layers of albumen 
(white); 4, two layers of the lining mem- 
brane of the shell; 5, calcareous shell; 6, 
chalaza; 7, air space between the two layers 
of the shell membranes; 8, cicatricula, with 
its nucleus, beneath which is seen the canal 
leading down to the white yolk cavity, or 
latebra, 9. 



LOCATION OF THE LIFE GERM 397 

lay because there is not sufficient fat to develop the yolk. There- 
fore, it will be found that the best layers are neither too thin nor 
over-fat; rather those which are active and in good spirits from 
dawn to dark. 

Germ. — Although invisible to the naked eye, the yolk is 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig- 259.— Yellow yolk of fresh egg. Magnified 250 times. 

covered by a delicate membrane, called the vitelline membrane, 
so named, perhaps, because clinging to this membrane is found 
the life germ, the really vital part of the egg. The contents of 
the yolk is called the vitellus, upon which the life germ draws 
for its sustenance. When a hen's vitality becomes weakened it 
is generally manifested in the composition of the vitelline mem- 



398 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

brane, which is easily ruptured, causing the vitellus to escape 
and mix with the albumen. Naturally, this condition gives the 
egg an addled, unsavory appearance, undesirable as food, even 
though it may be strictly fresh. Nine times out of ten the house- 
wife condemns it as a bad egg. 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 260. — White yolk of fresh egg. Magnified 250 times. 

Keeping eggs for any length of time weakens the vitelline 
membrane, also, consequently eggs intended for hatching pur- 
poses should be set as fresh as possible. An example of this de- 
terioration is found in storage eggs, which, if kept for many months, 
frequently result in ruptured yolks as soon as they are opened. 
Moreover, in a stale egg the albumen loses its firm consistency 



TIME REQUIRED FOR DEVELOPMENT 399 

and becomes watery, hence it fails to support the yolk, which 
then gravitates to the membranous lining of the shell and adheres 
to it. 

Fertility. — All normal eggs contain a life germ, but all life 
germs are not fertile, and there is no way to determine the fer- 
tility of the embryo before incubation, except by breaking the 
shell and examining the contents very closely, and even this is 
not infallible. The fertile germ has a ring or film surrounding 
it, which is clear, and in the center may be seen little white dots — 
rudimentary cells. The sterile germ has a whitish appearance 
and does not possess the outer ring or the dots. After 24 hours' 
incubation life is perceptible if the egg is opened. 

Shape and Color of Shells. — Notwithstanding many claims 
to the contrary, the shape of an egg has nothing whatever to 
do with its sex. We have shown that the shape of an egg is 
governed almost entirely by the shape of the oviduct, which is 
peculiar to every individual and practically constant. The 
same individuality applies to the color of an egg, which also re- 
mains more or less constant, except that as the laying season ad- 
vances the color gradually fades to a lighter shade. The reason 
for this is plain : the glands which secrete the color pigment are 
more heavily drawn upon, consequently the supply is somewhat 
weakened. 

Time for Development. — Just how much time is required for 
the development of an egg is not definitely known. The forma- 
tion of the yolk is the longest period, and probably requires three 
weeks before it is ready to leave the ovisac. The second process, 
that of accumulating the albumen and forming the shell, is com- 
paratively short, and requires about eighteen hours. It fre- 
quently happens that two eggs are under completion in the ovi- 
duct at the same time. 

Like all secretory organs, these reproductive tissues, glands, 
and so on, are shrunken and very much contracted when not in 
use, and enlarge to many times their former size when stimulated 
to a point of productivity. It is this stimulation — the time re- 
quired to overcome the inert condition — which is of vital im- 
portance to the poultryman's pocket-book. 



CHAPTER XXX 
MARKET EGGS 

Quality in Eggs. — Housewives and consumers generally are 
seldom concerned with any but two kinds of eggs — good eggs and 
bad eggs. The term good in this sense usually means fresh, and 
has become synonymous with the idea of desirable quality. A 
bad egg — is a bad egg, commonly thought to be the result of old 
age, and as such it is condemned. The actual age of an egg. 
however, is only one of the factors that affect its quality. There 
are many other equally potent influences, a knowledge of which 
will be beneficial to those engaged in the production, handling 
or consumption of eggs. Strictly speaking, the term fresh should 
mean a definite quality rather than a definite age, for all newly 
laid eggs are not necessarily good eggs, in a sense that they are 
desirable as food. An explanation of the reasons for these 
peculiarities will be set forth in this chapter. In the succeeding 
paragraphs the term fresh is intended to express prime — superior 
— quality. 

Strictly Fresh Normal Egg. — Eggs are one of the most difficult 
food products to grade, not only because each egg must be con- 
sidered separately, but because an accurate knowledge of the 
contents cannot be ascertained without destroying the egg. 
They can be selected for size, shape, color, cleanliness and texture 
of shell, and freedom from cracks, from external appearances, 
which is the most common method of grading them. The best 
method of determining the interior quality is by the process of 
candling, which is used for commercial purposes. See Fig. 261. 

Composition of the Egg. — The purpose of the normal egg in 
nature requires that it be of a fairly uniform composition; its 
contents must be so proportioned as to form the chick without 

400 



IMPOSITION OF THE EGG 



401 



surplus matter, and naturally this demands a uniform chemical 
composition. When the egg is first laid it is completely filled, 
but as soon as it cools the contents contract and an air space or 
air cell is formed. This cell usually lies between the two shell 
membranes, and at the large end of the egg, where it is plainly 
visible with the aid of a candle. As the age of the egg increases 
evaporation takes place, which enlarges the air cell to consider- 
able size, and therefore denotes, approximately, the degree of 
freshness. 

The composition of hens' eggs is somewhat variable, with 




Fig. 261. — Class in candling, grading and packing eggs at the Kansas 
Agricultural College. 



breeds and with individuals, and also as the result of care and 
feeding. A general idea may be had from the following table: 

Albumen 
Whole Egg Yolk or White 

Water 70 to 76% 46 to 52% 80 to 88% 

Fat ; 9 to 14% 30 to 35% Traces 

Protein 10 to 15% 14 to 16% 10 to 13% 

Shell and its membranes 9 to 12% .... .... 

The precise chemical analysis of a hen's egg is too technical 
for the subject of this book, and it is really unimportant so far 
as the average poultryman is concerned. The eggs of turkeys, 
geese, ducks, guineas and other birds vary slightly from the above 
table, and are, therefore, more desirable for certain purposes. 
26 



402 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Size. — Although certain breeds are credited with laying larger 
eggs than others, as a general rule the size of an egg is controlled 
principally by selection of layers of large eggs and judicious 
breeding toward this end. In a number of tests conducted by 
Experiment Stations it has been found that care and feeding 
have slight influences in the sizes of eggs, but this does not estab- 
lish anything beyond the fact that the condition and general 
health of the fowls are directly responsible. At the beginning of 
their laying period pullets lay a much smaller egg than those laid 
during the height of their laying season. Similarly, as a hen 
approaches the molt, her eggs become smaller. The difference in 
food value per pound is in favor of the large eggs, because they 
have a smaller percentage of shell. 

Food Value.- — It should be borne in mind, however, that there 
is considerable difference in the food value of eggs of different 
grades. Furthermore, the season of the year has something to 
do with the quality of eggs. Those produced in summer are of 
lower quality; the albumen is more watery than the eggs pro- 
duced in the spring, hence they are not so desirable for storage 
purposes. In candling, the yolks of summer eggs float lower in 
the albumen, which is a sign of weakness, and the yolks appear 
slightly darker than in spring eggs. Packing houses always aim 
to store eggs produced during March, April and May for best 
results. 

It is almost certain that some hens have an inherited tendency 
to produce eggs of poor quality, for the same reason that certain 
hens will almost invariably lay a malformed egg. If this is true, 
it is reasonable to suppose that this characteristic will descend 
to their progeny. Flocks should be culled for the quality of their 
eggs as well as for their productiveness. In no other way is it 
possible to develop a flock that will lay a uniformly high grade of 
eggs. 

Abnormal Eggs. — To further illustrate the remark that a 
newly laid egg is not always a desirable egg, some of the most 
common abnormalities will be discussed. Double-yolk eggs 
result from the joining together of two yolk sacs during their de- 



ABNORMAL EGGS 



403 



velopment; their growth is identical, they have the same blood 
supply, and both drop into the oviduct at the same time. The 




Normal fresh egg. 



Fresh egg showing blood clot. 




Fertile egg after 24 hours of incubation. Infertile egg after 24 hours of incubation. 

{Courtesy U. S. Dep'l Agriculture) 
Fig. 262. — Changes affecting the appearance of eggs. 



formation of the albumen seems to be entirely automatic, hence 
the same mass surrounds both yolks, and later they are framed 
by the same shell. 



404 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Most double-yolk eggs have the same quality as normal eggs, 
but the poultryman should not try to pack them in ordinary car- 
tons or fillers on account of their increased size. They will project 
above the level of the filler, or fit too snugly into the filler, and be 
broken by the eggs surrounding them. One broken egg in a 
shipment will damage perhaps four or five dozen eggs by reason 
of its leaking contents. A broken egg is a very messy, unpleasant 
looking article, consequently a moment of carelessness in packing 
is often responsible for a serious discount on the sales statement, 
or a disgruntled, indignant customer. 

Yolks are sometimes forced into the oviduct before they are 
mature, and thus appear very small, and in some cases they are 
little more than specks, in the completed egg. 

Blood Clots. — At certain seasons, usually during the first 
laying period of pullets and during the spring months of heavy 
egg production, especially if the flock is excessively forced by 
highly concentrated foods, blood clots appear in the eggs, ad- 
hering to the yolks. This is probably the commonest defect 
arising in the ovary, and often a very troublesome one for the 
poultryman, since he can not detect it without candling. Blood 
clots are different from bloody eggs. The former are usually 
caused by the rupture of a blood-vessel when the yolk sac 
splits to allow the escape of the mature yolk into the oviduct. 
The clot adheres to the yolk as it passes through the oviduct, 
and is encased by the albumen. It is easily detected by the 
candle. When the egg is opened the clot can be removed and 
the egg is suitable for food. For table purposes this is very ob- 
jectionable, for the appearance of the blood is disagreeable. 
To those unfamiliar with the physiological reasons, it sug- 
gests a partly hatched egg, for which many poultrymen have 
been unjustly blamed. Obviously, when catering to a fancy 
retail trade, or when eggs are represented as being of the 
finest quality, they should be candled as a guard against this 
trouble. 

Bloody Eggs. — An ordinary blood clot does not color the al- 
bumen. If the white of an egg is bloody, it is from a different 



BLOODY EGGS 405 

cause, and such an egg is termed a bloody egg. When boiled, 
such eggs appear brownish, and they are distinctly unappetizing- 




Fertile egg allowed to die after 36 hours of Infertile egg after 36 hours of incubation. 



incubation. 




Fertile egg after 48 hours of incubation. Infertile egg after 48 hours of incubation. 

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 263. — Changes affecting the appearance of eggs. 

looking. It is virtually impossible to remove the affected part, 
as in the case of the blood clot, hence the egg is useless. Bloody 
eggs are caused by an irritation or injury to the wall of the ovi- 



406 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

duct, whereupon blood is exuded with the albumen, thereby 
making the white of the egg bloody-looking or streaked with 
blood. It is generally caused by over-exertion or constitutional 
weakness, and is not nearly so common as blood clots. Wherever 
possible the poultryman should strive to find out the hen that is 
responsible and to remove her from the flock. 

Fresh Laid Stale Eggs. — It sounds incredible that a fowl should 
lay a stale egg, or a spoiled egg, but this frequently happens. 
The condition responsible for this peculiarity is sometimes chronic 
with certain hens, or merely occasional, and if the victims can be 
spotted they had better be killed for Sunday's dinner. If not, 
the poultryman will have to assume the burden of a tedious 
explanation to the customer who is unfortunate enough to receive 
such eggs. 

After the yolk enters the oviduct it is forced through this tube 
by a circular movement or contraction of the muscles of the 
oviduct wall, and at the same time receiving layer after layer of 
albumen, and finally the shell, when it is ready for expulsion 
from the body. At some stage in this development, which under 
normal circumstances should only require about, eighteen hours, 
from the time the yolk enters the oviduct until the finished egg 
is laid, this action ceases temporarily, maybe as the result of 
fright or due to an injury, and the egg is held in the body of the 
fowl for several days after it is completed. 

It must be remembered that the life germ, or germinal disk, 
is complete when the yolk leaves the yolk sac, hence it is subject 
to heat for its development into the embryo chick. If the egg is 
held in the body, the life germ comes under the influence of the body 
temperature and incubation begins, providing, of course, the egg 
is fertile. If the egg is infertile, the results are not so disastrous; 
the egg has a stale flavor, or maybe the contents are of a peculiar 
color. In the fertile egg, when it is finally laid, the germ dies, 
and immediately it starts to decay. Such eggs are called body- 
heated eggs. 

There are other minor abnormalities, those of such rare oc- 
currence, such as an egg within an egg, foreign substances within 



MINOR ABNORMALITIES IN EGGS 



407 



eggs, intestinal worms within eggs, connected eggs, multigerminal 
disks, meat spots, soft-shell eggs and eggs with loose shell mem- 
branes, that space will not be devoted to their description. 




Fertile egg after 72 hours of incubation. 



Infertile egg after 72 hours of incubation. 




Fertile egg after 7 days of incubation. 



Infertile egg after 7 days of incubation. 

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 264. — Changes affecting the appearance of eggs. 



External Influences. — In the foregoing paragraphs we have 
discussed only the internal factors affecting the quality of eggs. 



408 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 




There are as many, perhaps more, external influences. The 
most potent of these influences are evaporation, heating, musti- 
ness, mold, bacterial contamination, moisture, bad odors and so 
on. 

The egg shell is porous, so that the embryo chick may obtain 
air, and this porosity exposes the contents to the drying influence 
of the atmosphere surrounding it. The rate at which the in- 
terior moisture is lost depends upon the humidity and tempera- 
ture of the air in which the eggs are stored, also the rate at which 
the air is moving over or among the eggs, and the texture of their 

shells and membranes. 
As evaporation con- 
tinues, air replaces the 
moisture, which enlarges 
the air cell, and if the eggs 
are kept long enough, 
and at the same time pro- 
tected against heating or 
contamination, all the 
moisture will evaporate 
— __ — _ i^_j ant j |] u , yolk anc } albu- 

Fig. 265.— -A well-ventilated, clean vege- me n will become a dried 
table cellar is a good place for the farmer 
to hold his eggs until ready for market. mass. 

Storage Place. — A 

cool, sweet cellar or refrigerator is the most desirable place for stor- 
ing eggs, in which they may be kept for three or four weeks without 
serious evaporation. See Fig. 265. Never store eggs in the kitchen 
or shed, or where they are subjected to warm air or currents of air. 
The best receptacle is a pail or box, something that will prevent the 
free circulation of air through the eggs, and yet allow a moderate 
amount of ventilation, hung in a cool, moderately dry place where 
there are no odors to be absorbed by the eggs. Avoid excessive 
dampness, for this may cause mold or other changes to take place. 
If eggs are allowed to remain in the one position for a long time, 
the yolks will rise and stick to the shell membranes, which is, 
of course, an objectionable feature. Moreover, if they are stored 



LOSSES IN MARKETING 



409 



in a damp place, mold spots are very apt to form at the points 
where the yolks come in contact with the shell membranes, in 
which case they are unfit for food. It is sometimes possible to 
shake the yolk loose without rupturing the vitelline membrane 
of the yolk, but it more often breaks. 

Water Test. — Some housewives attempt to ascertain the con- 
dition of their eggs by placing them in water, and they will argue 
that if the egg sinks it is fresh, and if it floats it is bad. See Fig. 
266. This test is fairly accurate in determining the age of an egg, 
but only so far as the extent of its evaporation. It will not dis- 
close the interior quality of 



^\ 



^ 






the egg, nor determine the 
other peculiarities that we 
have discussed. A newly laid 
egg will lie nearly flat on the 
bottom of a dish filled with 
water. If the egg is slightly 
evaporated, the large end will 
tip slightly upward, and this 
tendency will increase with 
the degree of evaporation. 
If the egg rises to the surface 
of the water, it is pretty badly 
evaporated ; sometimes they 
will float with half of their 
surface exposed. 

The best way to inspect eggs is to candle them, a simple method 
of placing the egg before a bright light and looking through the 
egg toward the light. Anyone can become proficient in the use 
of this method in a very few trials. 

Our Two Billion Egg Waste. — Immediately it is laid the prod- 
uct of the American hen is worth $50,000,000 more than when 
it is opened by the consumer. In other words, the value of the 
eggs produced in this country each year depreciates, shrinks, 
to the extent of $50,000,000 by reason of deterioration and dam- 
age due to improper care of the eggs on the farm, most of which 



{Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 266. — Specific gravity test for 
determining the age and condition of eggs. 
a, Fresh egg; note smallness of air cell 
and the horizontal position of the egg 
when immersed in water; b, slight evapor- 
ation causes the egg to tip; c, increased 
evaporation causes egg to stand on end; 

d, badly evaporated egg which floats; 

e, an egg so badly evaporated that it is 
likely to be unfit for use. 



410 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

may be attributed to gross negligence and inexcusable ignorance, 
and through careless packing and shipping, resulting in heavy 
breakage losses, and because of antiquated selling methods, such 
as the practice of exchanging eggs at the general store for mer- 
chandise. 

Think of it, in a single commodity in a single country in a 
single year there is a loss of fifty millions of dollars. And it has 
been going on right under our noses year after year. Sounds 
incredible, no doubt. 

The Department of Agriculture and other bureaus of statistics 
are authority for these figures. A journey through the egg 
trade — all the devious channels from the hen's nest to the con- 
sumer's household — will convince the most skeptical that this 
estimate of the depreciation in eggs is absolutely reliable. If 
anything, it is too conservative. For example, the above figures 
represent only actual losses, in addition to which there are cer- 
tain intangible losses, which are none the less real because of 
their intangibility. 

The intangible losses are those induced by curtailed consump- 
tion due to the presence of inferior eggs. Let me explain this 
point: All are agreed, I think, that nothing disturbs the appetite 
more than bad eggs. Perhaps this is because of the sensitiveness 
of our olfactory membranes. However, when we open a bad egg, 
even though it is only somewhat stale or of poor flavor, what is 
the result? Disgust — repulsion. We push it from us, or cause 
it to be removed from sight. At certain seasons of the year 
when fresh eggs are scarce this denouement happens frequently. 
In fact, it is the rule rather than the exception, and what is the 
result? We regard all eggs with suspicion; they are persona 
non grata, and in consequence we turn to something else for our 
breakfast dishes. This cuts down the demand and lowers the 
price. 

Statistics are sometimes wearisome, especially if they involve 
large numerals, yet they offer the only means of a convincing 
argument, outside of the actual conditions. Therefore, at the 
risk of seeming too statistical I am going to indulge in a few 




411 



412 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

figures. I want it to become vividly apparent and to sink in — 
just how appalling, how profligate, is this enormous waste. 

Such a loss should be considered sinful, not alone because of 
the financial loss to the farmers, who bear the greater part of the 
burden, but because it is a community loss of so much valuable 
food, the most nourishing kind of food, of which thousands are 
in such urgent need. 

A depreciation of fifty millions of dollars in the value of our 
eggs is equivalent to throwing away 2,000,000,000 eggs, or about 
280,000,000 pounds of one of our finest food staples. Reducing 
this loss to a per capita basis, it means that every man, woman 
and child in the country is deprived of about twenty eggs each 
year. If we consider that very young infants do not eat eggs in 
any form, also that the majority of the poorer classes can seldom 
afford them except in the preparation of other foods, the loss 
pro rata to those who do eat table eggs would probably be in the 
neighborhood of four dozen each year. 

Breakage. — Let us regard the waste in still another way: In 
New York City about 5,000,000 cases of eggs, or 150,000,000 
dozens, are received each year. Records show that in the spring 
and early summer months it is not unusual for 200,000 cases to 
be received in a single week. The breakage on this egg supply, 
not the total damage, together with the depreciation result- 
ing from such breakage, is about three and a half per cent, or 
5,250,000 dozens annually. 

Until a few years ago the railroads and other carriers were 
held accountable for the greater part of this breakage, and their 
claims in the New York district alone amounted to over a million 
dollars a year. Their claims still amount to about a half million 
dollars annually. This reduction in claims does not mean that 
the breakage has lessened, merely that the carriers have shifted 
a certain portion of the responsibility to the shoulders of the pro- 
ducers, shippers, packers and wholesale distributors, where it 
rightfully belongs, as I will explain later. 

In a case heard before the Interstate Commerce Commission 
two years ago, between the New York Mercantile Exchange, a 



CLAIMS FOR DAMAGED EGGS 413 

corporation of about five hundred merchants engaged in dealing 
in eggs and dairy products, which exchange corresponds to the 
Chicago Grain Exchange or the New York Stock Exchange, and 
six leading railway systems entering the metropolitan district, 
it was shown of record that one railroad's gross revenue on eggs 
and the total claims presented for loss and damage thereon 
amounted in the periods of 1912 below noted to the following 
amounts : 

Total Revenue Total Claims Per Cent 

April $34,014.54 $2,774.40 8.1 

May 23,298.59 4,7i7-58 20.25 

June 16,762.41 2,423.66 14.5 

September, first week 5,589.58 3,190.71 57-25 

September, second week 5,594-7° 3,338.12 59-66 

September, third week 4,578.70 2,661.28 58.1 

September, fourth week 4,125.46 1,746.67 42.1 

During the above periods there were no wrecks or derailments, 
and no unusual weather conditions or labor disturbances to 
account for these losses. At the same hearing it was also shown 
that in 19 13 another railroad paid claims on eggs from its New 
York office alone amounting to $100,207.35. With this and 
similar losses going on constantly all over the country is it any 
wonder that the railroads find themselves financially embar- 
rassed, or that they have had to forego dividends to their stock- 
holders? In 19 16 their total claim bill for loss and damage on all 
commodities amounted to thirty-five million dollars, which ab- 
sorbed about two per cent of their total earnings. 

For convenience in analyzing this subject we will divide the 
egg trade as a whole into four principal divisions or classes: 
First, the producers, second, the shippers, third, the carriers, 
and fourth, the distributors, both wholesale and retail. 

All Are to Blame. — It cannot be said that any one class is re- 
sponsible for our fifty-million-dollar egg-loss, and certainly no 
class is exempt from it. All are to blame, and all are equally 
culpable. 

Losses in eggs occur at all stages of handling, on the farm, in 
the country store, with the local shipper, the egg-collecting center, 
the railroad, the packer, the jobber, the commission merchant, 



414 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



the teamster and the retailer. Strictly fresh eggs, generally 
known as nearby hennery, which tickle the palates of the well 
to do at the rate of eighty cents to a dollar a dozen, come largely 
from the environs of the large cities, where they are produced by 
poultrymen who make a specialty of fancy eggs. Such eggs 
constitute a very small percentage of the trade, however,- — about 
ten per cent, — and their damage aside from breakage is not ap- 
preciable because most of the shipments are made by fast ex- 
press. For the present we will not concern ourselves with this 
class of eggs. 




(Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 



Fig. 268. — "A full house." 



The great bulk of the egg trade must travel a thousand or two 
thousand miles before it reaches its destination. These are the 
eggs wherein the serious losses occur. Not so much because of 
the distances transported, though this is an important factor, 
but because of the numerous hands through which they pass, 
and the personal equation in each instance, and because the 
character of the egg is such that any slight defect visited upon it 
at its place of origin rapidly accumulates further deterioration. 
A slightly heated egg on the farm, or an egg with a blind check, 
so termed because the crack is not visible without the aid of a 
strong candle, may reach the market in such an advanced state 




415 



416 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

of decomposition that, unless carted to a crematory or dump- 
heap, its only use is a manufacturing one, such as tanning leather, 
and for which eggs are worth about fifty cents a case. 

All Bear the Burden. — While the burden of these losses falls 
upon all who handle the eggs, they are borne chiefly by the pro- 
ducers and the consumers. The producers' loss is represented in 
a decrease in price because of spoilage or poor quality; the con- 
sumers' loss is reflected in a decreased supply by reason of the 
spoilage, which compels the consumer to pay a higher price for 
the sound portions which finally reach him. 

Investigations. — Exhaustive special inquiries have been con- 
ducted in different parts of the country for a number of years, 
both by the Department of Agriculture and other interested 
bodies, with the view to finding out the exact conditions of eggs 
in the numerous stages of handling, and to ascertain ways of 
remedying the defective practices. 

A test was made in an egg-collecting center in the West made 
up of twenty prominent shippers, wherein it was found that the 
percentage of eggs that were so bad as to be an absolute loss 
amounted to 8.33 per cent. This was in November. In other 
sections during the warmer months as high as thirty per cent of 
the eggs were totally unfit for food. 

An investigation among some country stores during October, 
which is considered a fairly favorable month for eggs, showed 
that only twenty-five per cent of the eggs collected from the ad- 
jacent farmers would rank as firsts, that sixty per cent were 
seconds, due to long holding on the farms, that five per cent were 
cracked, and that four per cent were rotten or stuck to the shell. 
In this experiment, as with many others, it was found that the 
majority of the farmers had held their eggs for four and six weeks 
before turning them into the village store. 

Grades. — For the benefit of those who are not familiar with 
the different grades of eggs from a commercial standpoint, — and 
few are, — I want to explain the definitions of these grades as em- 
ployed by the trade. The terra firsts does not mean one hundred 
per cent strictly fresh eggs, or even good eggs, by any manner 



GRADING OF EGGS 417 

of means, though the term implies such a quality. The rules 
governing transactions in eggs on the New York Mercantile 
Exchange, which constitute the standard or basis by which all 
trading is carried on, and which are published in booklet form and 
distributed throughout the trade, are set forth in part as follows : 

Rule I. — Classification and Grading: 
i. Eggs shall be classified as "fresh gathered," "held," 
"refrigerator," and "limed." 

2. There shall be grades of "extras," "extra firsts," "firsts," 
"seconds," "thirds," "No. I and 2 dirties," and "checks." 

Rule II. — Qualities: 
Fresh Gathered Extras shall be free from dirty eggs, of 
good uniform size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, rea- 
sonably full, strong-bodied, sweet eggs. 

Quality A 90 per cent 

Quality B 80 per cent 

Quality C 65 per cent 

The balance, other than loss, may be slightly defective in 
strength or fullness, but must be sweet. The maximum 
total average loss per case permitted in "extras" shall vary 
with the requirement of reasonably full, strong-bodied eggs, 
as follows: 

Quality A I dozen maximum loss 

Quality B i}4 dozen maximum loss 

Quality C 2 dozen maximum loss 

Fresh Gathered Firsts shall be reasonably clean and of 
good average size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, rea- 
sonably full, strong-bodied, sweet eggs. 

Quality A 75 per cent 

Quality B 65 per cent 

Quality C 50 per cent 

Quality D 40 per cent 

The balance, other than loss, may be defective in strength 
or fullness, but must be sweet. The maximum total loss 
per case permitted in "firsts" shall vary with the require- 
ment of reasonably full, strong-bodied eggs, as follows: 

Quality A \]/2 dozen maximum loss 

Quality B 2 dozen maximum loss 

Quality C 3 dozen maximum loss 

Quality D 4 dozen maximum loss 

27 



418 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Fresh Gathered Seconds shall be reasonably clean and of 
fair average size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, reason- 
ably full eggs: . t 

Quality A 65 per cent 

Quality B 50 per cent 

Quality C 40 per cent 

Quality D _ 30 per cent 

The balance, other than loss, may be defective in strength 
and fullness, but must be merchantable stock. The maxi- 
mum total average loss per case permitted in "seconds" 
shall vary with the proportion of reasonably full eggs re- 
quired, as follows: 

Quality A 2 dozen maximum loss 

Quality B 3 dozen maximum loss 

Quality C 4 dozen maximum loss 

Quality D 5 dozen maximum loss 

"Loss" as used in these rules, shall comprise all rotten, 
spotted, broken (leaking), broken yolked, hatched (blood 
veined) and sour eggs. Very small eggs, very dirty, cracked 
(not leaking), badly heated, badly shrunken and salt eggs 
shall be counted as half loss in all grades excepting "dirties" 
and "checks." 

The foregoing rules cover but three grades of eggs. There are 
about twenty grades all told, with exceptions and modifications 
to each. Some of their names follow: Fresh gathered thirds, 
held firsts, held seconds, refrigerator extras, refrigerator firsts, 
refrigerator seconds, refrigerator thirds, limed extras, limed firsts, 
limed seconds, No. 1 dirties, No. 2 dirties, checks and so on. 

To describe all of these different grades would take up too 
much space. The point that I wish to bring out is this, not- 
withstanding certain eggs are good enough to be rated as "fresh 
gathered firsts," they are still a long way from being perfect. 
And this way constitutes waste. As will be noted from the fore- 
going rules, the shrinkage in "fresh gathered firsts" runs from 
twenty-five to sixty per cent, with an actual loss of from one and 
a half to four dozen to the case. 

A certain amount of shrinkage is to be expected in storage eggs, 
even when they are stored under the most favorable refrigera- 






HEAT LOSSES 



419 



tion. It is a natural evaporation of the contents of the egg, re- 
sulting in an air cell which is familiar to all, and cannot be over- 
come. 

Excessive shrinkage, badly shrunken eggs, is another matter. 
Its responsibility usually commences on the farm, due to holding 
the eggs too long, though the rural buyer or country store and 
the egg-collecting center are in no wise innocent of the same poor 
practice. Actual physical deterioration, or total loss, as de- 




Fig. 270 



(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Candling eggs at the farmer's gate. 



scribed in the foregoing rules of the Mercantile Exchange, is 
still another matter, and includes such depreciation as heat affec- 
tion, bacterial contamination, mustiness, mold and sour eggs. 
The conditions which bring about these changes are almost 
wholly due to negligence and antiquated methods. They are 
unpardonable because in the main they are preventable. 

Heat Losses. — As might be supposed, heat is the worst enemy 
of the egg. The loss to the trade as the result of heated eggs is 



420 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



greater than from any other source, especially if male birds are 
allowed to run with the hens. 

Heat in connection with eggs does not necessarily mean ex- 
cessive heat, which we know will injure the quality of eggs. The 
fertile egg is susceptible to even a moderate temperature. If 
allowed to remain in a temperature of 70 degrees F. for any 
length of time, it starts to incubate, slowly, of course, neverthe- 
less development goes on, and every day it is exposed to this 
warmth it is hastened on its downward career. The first stage 

of this deterioration ap- 
pears as blood on the 
yolk. Later a blood ring 
is formed, which indi- 
cates that the embryo is 
dead, and like all dead 
animal matter forthwith 
it starts to decay. Com- 
mercially, heated eggs are 
known as floaters and 
blood rings. Light floats 
correspond to about 
twenty-four hours' in- 
cubation at a temper- 
ature of 102 degrees, 
whereas heavy floats are equal to about forty-eight hours' incu- 
bation. 

Infertile eggs, sometimes called sterile eggs, those laid by hens 
kept apart from male birds, withstand heat much better than 
fertile eggs, though it is an utter fallacy to assume that the 
former will not spoil. This mistaken notion is all too common. 
Without a vitalized life germ, there is no incubation in sterile 
eggs, hence there are no blood rings to develop; nevertheless 
they undergo certain chemical and physical changes which sooner 
or later impair the quality of their contents. They shrink as 
badly as the fertile eggs, and the yolks are likely to weaken and 
break or stick to the shells. 




Fig. 27 1 . — Stolen nest in the hollow of a tree. 



LOSSES ON THE FARM 421 

Farm Losses. — It is not uncommon for farm eggs to remain 
under a wheat shock or in some out-of-the-way corner for two or 
three days, maybe a week, before they are found, or before it is 
convenient to collect them, during which time probably they 
have been subjected to summer heat of perhaps 95 degrees. 
See Fig. 272. Frequently the eggs are stored in the kitchen or 
back porch, or in a closet in one of the outbuildings, where the 
thermometer hovers around 85 degrees at midday. Often the 
eggs are hauled to the village store or shipping point in an open 
wagon, maybe a wagon without springs, exposed to the direct 
rays of the sun and a temperature of 105 degrees, and then left on 
a truck at the railway station for several hours. 

General Store. — If the eggs are delivered at the village store 
for credit, it is quite likely that the storekeeper, receiving the 
eggs over the counter, will let them remain in the store until the 
close of the day, and then carry them down to the cellar, where 
they will remain for perhaps a week, until a large enough quantity 
is gathered to ship to a local buyer or egg-collecting center. 
What if the cellar is warm or damp or musty or poorly ventilated, 
the storekeeper has no particular interest in the eggs, any more 
than as a means of keeping the farmer's trade in merchandise. 

Local Buyer. — When the local buyer or egg-collecting depot 
receives the eggs, probably it is by way-freight, the eggs are 
again held for several days or a week until there is enough to 
make up a carlot, whereupon they are dispatched to a city jobber 
or to a packer. This last lap of the journey may be made in a 
refrigerator car, or it may not. In either event there is enough 
iniquity already stored up inside the eggs or their cases to account 
for a large portion of our fifty million dollar loss. 

This system of marketing is not incidental. It is general. It 
is in vogue all over the country. Its evils are perfectly obvious. 
Exchanging eggs for merchandise or credit at the general store, 
as at present practised, is pernicious. It is the weakest spot in 
the egg trade. 

A graphic idea of the loss due to heated stock can be obtained 
from the fact that in the South and Southwest the egg industry 



422 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



is practically dead from the first of June until cool weather in 
the fall. The losses are so great, and the net returns so small, 
that the majority of the farmers hardly consider it worth while 
to collect their eggs at all during the summer months. It is a 
common thing to find fully hatched, live chicks in cases of market 
eggs from these sections. In fact, the heat damage and other 
losses are so heavy that producers do well to receive a net price 
of five cents per dozen. 

An average lot of summer southern eggs would candle about as 
follows: Light floats, 80 per cent; heavy floats, 15 per cent; 




Fig. 272. 



> 7 eed nest. Nest in straw stack. 

{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
-Stolen nests are responsible for a huge wastage of eggs. 



blood rings and checks, 5 per cent. As bakers' stock the light 
floats might bring twelve cents a dozen, the heavy floats five 
cents a dozen, and the blood rings nothing. Deduct for break- 
age, commission, candling, freight and haulage, and the net re- 
turns are insignificant. 

One in Four Lost. — As near as it can be estimated, the loss in 
southern and western eggs due to heat is one-fourth of the original 
value of the crop. For the entire country this element of waste 
is estimated at fully five per cent of the total valuation of the 



LOSSES DUE TO BREAKAGE 423 

egg trade. Mind you, this percentage represents actual wastage, 
and nothing more. It does not include the losses resulting from 
decreased prices by reason of the inferiority of most farm eggs. 
The losses attributable to the inferior quality of the bulk of our 
egg trade are intangible, the same as the losses due to curtailed 
consumption are intangible; but they are real nevertheless. It is 
doubtful if one hundred million dollars a year would cover them. 
The most significant testimony to this statement is found in 
the twenty or more grades of low quality eggs, selling at low 
prices, and their relation to a few grades of high class eggs, which 
sell at high prices. The farmer's eggs comprise the bulk of the 
low grade marks, which include storage eggs, and sell at prices 
from a third to two-thirds the value of strictly fresh, prime eggs. 
The following is a typical set of wholesale quotations in the New 
York market for December: 

Nearby hennery whites, fine to fancy 76 to 82 cents 

Nearby hennery browns 57 to 63 cents 

Fresh gathered extras 54 to 55 cents 

Extra firsts 52 to 53 cents 

Firsts 48 to 50 cents 

Seconds 42 to 46 cents 

Refrigerator extras 38 to 39 cents 

Refrigerator firsts 35 to 36 cents 

Refrigerator seconds 32 to 33 cents 

Refrigerator thirds 30 to 31 cents 

Limed extras 28 to 29 cents 

Limed firsts 26 to 27 cents 

Limed seconds 24 to 25 cents 

No. 1 dirties, refrigerator 23 to 24 cents 

Checks 22 to 24 cents 

It is not possible, of course, to bring the entire egg crop of the 
country up to the level of the "nearby hennery whites," but it is 
possible to create a vast improvement in the lower grades, which 
improvement will redound to the benefit of the farmers. Strange 
that they do not see it this way ! 

Breakage. — Next to heat, the greatest damage is occasioned 
by breakage. Indeed, it is nip and tuck which is the most in- 
fluential factor in piling up our monument of worthless eggs — 
heat or breakage. A broken egg is such a malicious sort of 



424 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



breakage. It is not only a less to itself, but it contaminates 
everything around it. 

Trade Terms. — In the trade,' breakage is designated by various 
names, some of which are descriptive, if not picturesque. Cracked 
eggs are termed checks. When the shells are pushed in without 
rupturing the inner membrane, they are called dents. If the 
eggs are partly open, or if they have lost a portion of their con- 
tents, they are known as leakers. When the eggs are com- 
pletely broken — among the missing, as it were — they are spoken 
of as mashers. 

Leakers and mashers not only produce smeared eggs, which 




{Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 

Fig. 273. — Typical forms of breakage which usually result from careless hand- 
ling or packing. 



are heavily discounted as dirties, but they account for a great 
many moldy eggs, also rots and spots. The checks and dents 
constitute a heavy loss because they do not keep in storage. It 
is estimated that thirteen million dollars' worth of eggs spoil in 
storage each year because of cracks, some of which are scarcely 
visible to the naked eye. 

Mechanical Injury. — The responsibility for mechanical injury 
- — breakage — is the bugbear of the egg trade. It has been the 
cause of so many claims, controversies and law suits between 
shippers, receivers and railroads that many of the latter have 
wanted to give up handling case eggs altogether. Even now 



FRAUDULENT PRACTICES 425 

these relations are far from amicable. It is hardly likely that 
they ever will be harmonious until we abandon some of our 
obsolete practices. 

If you listen to the shipper's or receiver's tale of woe in regard 
to breakage, you gain the impression that the carriers are a set 
of beats, who, for no reason at all, kick egg cases all over the 
map, smash them into bits, and then refuse to pay claims for 
damages. 

True, the railroads, express companies and other carriers have 
adopted rather drastic measures of late, one of which is the allow- 
ance of five per cent breakage on each case of eggs. Their tariff 
files now state that they will not be held accountable for breakage 
unless it exceeds five per cent, and that claims will be considered 
only on the damage in excess of five per cent on each case or 
crate. 

Shippers and receivers regard this regulation as an unjust im- 
position. They go so far as to call it confiscation. The carriers 
have been put to it in self-defense. There was a time, and only 
a few years back, when the greatest asset that many of the men 
engaged in the egg trade had, was the volume of claims which they 
collected from the carriers. Apparently, the carriers were re- 
garded as legitimate prey. They were set upon and gouged in 
a merciless manner by the most unscrupulous practices. The 
carriers knew they were being gouged, and, like the proverbial 
worm, they turned. They got the goods on various gentlemen, 
and said gentlemen were indicted for fraudulent practices. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
SELLING EGGS ADVANTAGEOUSLY 

Many poultrymen, especially those who raise but a few 
chickens, concern themselves chiefly with the problem of pro- 
ducing eggs, with insufficient attention to the best methods of 
selling them. They are accustomed to think that there is an un- 
limited demand, which is true — there is always a regular outlet for 
eggs, just as there is a regular market for corn, wheat and other 
staple products; but, to secure top prices, or to obtain the full 
value of the product, as much thought and care must be devoted 
to the selling end of the business as to the subject of production. 

Eggs are probably the easiest commodity to sell. — In fact, 
the demand for strictly fresh goods of prime quality is always 
greater than the supply. If we so desire we do not have to stir 
from our doorstep to find a buyer. The buyer will come to us, 
pay spot cash if he is a dealer, or give us credit for merchandise 
at his store. Transactions of this sort are very common, and 
they are so simple and call for so little effort on the part of the 
producer that they have induced the poultry raiser to accept 
them as a regular practice — along the lines of the least resistance. 
In other words, it is so easy to sell eggs through the regular chan- 
nels — the country store, commission merchant or wholesale 
dealer — that the practice has encouraged a form of laziness on the 
part of the producer. Instead of making him independent and 
resourceful, and stimulating a desire to seek the most profitable 
outlet for His wares, it has made him dependent and submissive 
— a sort of "take what I can get" spirit. 

Middleman's Charges. — It is very convenient to dispose of 
one's output at the back door, but it is a great mistake to think 
that the producer is not paying for this convenience. He is 

426 



MANY HANDLINGS REDUCE PRICE 



427 



paying for it in the form of a reduction in price. Eggs for which 
the producer is paid twenty-five cents a dozen usually retail to 
the consumer for thirty-five and thirty-eight cents, or higher. 
Thus, the middlemen's profits and handlers' charges amount to 
over ten cents a dozen. These charges are legitimate, because 




{Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
Fig. 274. — Grading and packing eggs. 



these distributing agents have rendered service for the poultry- 
man. They have received, shipped, stored, graded, sold, de- 
livered and collected for his goods. On each operation the mid- 
dleman has been put to an expense, which is chargeable, and 
on each operation the middleman wants a profit above his ex- 



428 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

pense, or there would be no incentive to do business. The sum 
total of all expenses and profits is therefore quite considerable. 
Admitting that the poultryman is put to a similar expense when 
he markets his goods direct to the consumer, the profits on these 
expenses, at least, are diverted to his own bank account. 

In talking to poultrymen on this subject I have heard remarks 
as follows: "It doesn't pay me to sell eggs retail. I haven't 
the time to bother with small shipments. I'd rather take a 
lower price and ship to a commission merchant — let him peddle 
the eggs. A private trade is all right in a way, but the pay is too 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Fig. 275. — Well-equipped feeding plant. Note the complete lighting and 

ventilating system. 

slow. I've got feed bills to meet, and I've got to get my check 
for a shipment promptly. Besides, when you ship to customers 
direct, and there is breakage or a delay of some kind, there are 
too many complaints. Let the other fellow do the worrying." 

Retailing Troubles. — There is a great deal of truth in the fore- 
going remarks; it is troublesome to sell eggs retail; yet it is the 
only way to get the greatest profits from the business. The de- 
tails of any enterprise require close attention, and it behooves the 
man in charge to evolve a system or scheme whereby they are 
simplified as much as possible. Certain it is that if the middle- 



COMMISSION MERCHANTS' WORK 429 

men find it profitable to distribute retail or direct to the con- 
sumer, the producer should find it equally profitable, providing 
he follows practical methods. 

In addition to the loss in price due to the charges and profits 
previously mentioned, it should also be borne in mind that the 
more eggs are handled the more their quality depreciates, conse- 
quently their value is discounted, as we have shown in a pre- 
ceding chapter. 

Number of Handlings. — Though transportation facilities are 
relatively simple, it is surprising to note the number of times a 
shipment of eggs is handled even when the eggs are produced 
within a hundred miles of their ultimate market. Eggs produced 
on a Pennsylvania or New Jersey poultry farm and consigned to 
a New York commission merchant are packed in 30-dozen crates. 
The crate is delivered to the express agent by the poultryman, 
the agent puts it aboard the train, and while it is in the care of 
the express company it may be handled four or five times before 
it reaches New York. At the railroad terminal the crate is re- 
moved from the car to the warehouse, and later loaded into a truck 
and delivered to the commission house to which it is consigned. 

Commission Merchants' Work. — Most commission merchants 
find it necessary to unpack, candle and grade the shipment, after 
which the eggs are sold to a retail store or hotel, or frequently the 
wholesale house will sell the shipment to a jobber, who will dis- 
tribute to the retail stores, restaurants and other consumers in 
one or two case lots. The retail store distributes the eggs to the 
ultimate consumer in dozen lots. The eggs have probably been 
handled twenty times, which does not improve their quality, 
particularly if they have been kept in warm temperatures or 
where the atmosphere is not as fresh as it might be. Such is the 
devious route by which a local shipment of eggs is received, and 
if they are of prime quality, they are known to the trade as 
"Nearby Hennery Fancy." 

Eggs of this grade, however, are more or less limited, and if the 
public had to depend upon them alone, there would be an egg 
famine. The greater number of eggs consumed in the large 



430 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Eastern cities come from the Central States, over a route about 
as follows: 

The farmer collects his eggs whenever he is of the mind to do 
so — maybe it is every day or twice a week, and from nests scattered 
about the farm buildings, under wheat shocks and in the brush. 
If they are fairly plentiful, he will take them to the general store 
(just as he has found them), in a basket, on an average of once a 
week. Or, perhaps the farmer lives in a section visited by an 
agent who drives from farm to farm gathering eggs in small 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 276. — Interior of a Western feeding station for handling live poultry. 



quantities. See Fig. 270. When the local merchant has col- 
lected a number of cases he disposes of them to a wholesale buyer, 
who is usually the representative of a large commission house in 
the East. The local merchant probably makes his shipment by 
freight to save expense. The wholesale buyer collects in case 
lots until he has enough for a carload, which is generally sent 
East in a refrigerator car. He may have repacked the eggs 
in new cases after candling them, or sold them case count. When 
the commission house receives the carload, the eggs are sorted 



TO OBTAIN BEST PRICES 431 

into a number of grades, which are sold to jobbers, and there- 
after the same route is followed as for the local eggs, only to a 
different class of trade. These eggs seldom come in competition 
with local eggs, for they are usually of inferior quality. 

Selling Direct. — If eggs are worth producing, every effort 
should be made to get their full value, and to do this they must 
be marketed as quickly as possible, so as to avoid any deteriora- 
tion, and sold wherever possible direct to the consumer, all other 
arguments to the contrary notwithstanding. Hotels, restaurants 
of the better class, clubs, steamships, railroads and soda fountains 
are among the highest bidders for strictly first-grade eggs, and 
many are supplied directly from large poultry farms. The prices 
at which these eggs are sold are usually at a given premium over 
top market quotation, or at a fixed rate per dozen on a year's 
contract for a given number of crates per week. The premium 
method is probably the best for all concerned, and may be made 
from three to ten cents above the market. 

Business of this character is generally done on a standing order, 
and the shipments are seldom more troublesome than dealing 
with commission merchants. Collections may be slower, of 
course, but the progressive poultryman must endeavor to take 
a position where he can extend a certain amount of credit; it 
is one of the principles of modern business. 

Another class of trade may be found among the first-class 
grocers who make a specialty in eggs of known quality, and to 
dealers who carry on a strictly high grade butter and egg delivery. 
Special terms can be made with a trade of this kind, similar to 
the hotel patronage — a premium over market quotations, and 
if those dealers who cater to a discriminating class can rely upon 
the poultryman for an absolutely uniform product, they will take 
special pains to create a high price market. 

Unscrupulous poultrymen have abused the practice of receiving 
premiums, hence those who have suffered by the abuse are apt 
to be a little skeptical, and justly so. The weakness of the plan 
is this: The premium offered sometimes tempts the poultryman 
into buying eggs from his neighbors and other outside sources, 




432 



DISTRIBUTING BY PARCEL POST 433 

all in good faith, no doubt, but unless the eggs are produced on 
his own farm, the poultryman has no real warranty as to their 
quality. He must depend upon the word of others, and fre- 
quently such assurances are not dependable. The quality be- 
comes uncertain, complaints are made, and confidence is shat- 
tered. Altogether, the practice is a risky one, and in a measure 
it is a misrepresentation — unfair dealing. 

Lost Confidence. — It is strange, perhaps, how quickly a cus- 
tomer will lose faith in the source of an egg supply, especially if 
the dealer is making attractive claims for the product. You 
may serve a household with eggs of the best quality for weeks 
and months, with never a complaint, when suddenly there is 
trouble. Maybe two or three eggs in a consignment are slightly 
stale, or they have a peculiar flavor, or they contain blood clots; 
immediately the consumer loses confidence, the loss of which is 
no easy task to recover. 

Private Trade. — In the outlets just described the business is 
more or less of a wholesale nature, yet many of the middle profits, 
notably those of the commission merchant and jobber, have been 
eliminated. There still remains, however, the profit taken by 
the retail dealer, which usually amounts to about five cents a 
dozen. Surely this profit is worth striving for, and may be had 
if the poultryman will make an effort to reach a private trade 
direct. 

If the farm is situated within easy driving distance of a large 
community, the problem is a simple one: the poultryman can 
make regular deliveries about twice a week. If this is not 
practicable, shipments can be made by parcel post, or by express, 
or the poultryman can establish a delivery in the city and have 
his eggs shipped to the city in large quantities, whence they are 
distributed. 

Parcel Post. — It is practicable to ship eggs by parcel post, so 
far as the security of the packages is concerned. If the containers 
are returned and used over and over, the charges are greatly re- 
duced. There are many types of carriers on the market, generally 
made of corrugated paper, which are strong and durable and yet 

28 



434 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



very light. The prices range from ten to thirty cents, depending 
upon the style and size, and from the writer's experience each 
carrier will make on an average of eight trips before it becomes 
too badly worn for further use. The customer is requested to 
hold the empties until four or five are collected, when they are then 
tied together and returned for the one charge. Thus; a carrier 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 278. — Bench killing and picking. 



holding four dozen eggs and costing twenty cents can be made 
to transport the eggs for about one cent a dozen, which includes 
the return charges on the carriers. The parcel post charges will 
amount to about three cents a dozen, bringing the total cost to 
four cents a dozen. 

Charges on Case Eggs. — At a glance this seems very high and 
to defeat the idea of shipping by parcel post ; but if we consider 



CLUB PLAN OF SELLING 435 

the cost of shipping eggs wholesale in case lots there is not a great 
deal of difference. Consignments made to commission merchants 
are usually made in gift crates and the express charges must be 
borne by the shipper, the cost of which comes to about two cents 
a dozen. The difference of two cents a dozen can be made up 
in the price charged for the eggs when catering to a select trade, 
over and above the retail profit of five cents a dozen. 

The club plan is probably the best method of selling eggs retail, 
and the easiest for the poultryman, although he should not expect 
to receive quite as high a price for his product. The plan is 
this — two or three families residing close together place a standing 
order for a case or a half case of eggs once a week ; the shipment is 
made to one address and the bill collected from there; the work 
of distributing the eggs being left to the consignee, who must 
also collect for them and remit to the poultryman. 

The additional profits accruing to the poultryman who sells 
retail are probably equal to the regular profits to be made on 
wholesale shipments. The practice requires more work and 
closer supervision, of course, but if one is engaged in the business 
for what can be taken out of it, why not try to take all the profits 
possible? If one thousand layers can be made to show a profit 
of two dollars a year per bird by selling retail, why raise and 
maintain two thousand layers at a profit of a dollar per bird per 
year selling wholesale? 



CHAPTER XXXII 
PRESERVING EGGS 

No article of diet of animal origin is more commomy eaten by 
all classes in all countries and in a greater variety of ways than 
eggs. They form one of our principal elements of food, and as 
such they are always in great demand. Unfortunately, however, 
the daily supply is not in proportion to the daily demand. We 
want just as many eggs in the fall and winter as we do in the 
spring and summer, but unless we store them, they are not avail- 
able. Dealers realize the importance of this — witness the stocks 
they place in cold storage each year. Why should the individual 
not exercise the same forethought? It is entirely practicable, 
and the investment required is small, outside of the cost of the 
eggs themselves. 

Virtues of Cold Storage. — It is strange and interesting to note 
how some of our conventions and prejudices have evolved, and 
how far removed from the truth are some of the popular beliefs. 
Many people regard cold storage eggs, and all those connected 
with the business, including the producer, middleman and re- 
tailer, as being traffickers in a more or less illegitimate product. 
Among some the very name cold storage is as odious as adultera- 
tion ; and they rail against the practice as though it were a form 
of knavery. Such a belief is absolutely false. 

The cold-storage industry is a development of the past thirty 
years, and as a whole it has been of enormous benefit to both the 
producer and the consumer. Of this there can be no doubt 
if one will only take the trouble to look into the subject a little. 
Placing eggs in storage has tended to make the prices of this com- 
modity more uniform throughout the. year, and to increase fall 
and winter consumption. 

"How is that?" someone will ask. "I remember when you 

436 



COLD STORAGE 



437 



could buy eggs in the spring for ten cents a dozen." True; but 
at that time it was difficult to buy eggs in the fall and winter for 
any price. They were not to be had in any quantity. Hens 
lay very few eggs in the autumn, especially on general farms; 
which farm flocks produce about 80 per cent of the country's 
supply. It is a perfectly natural condition. The old hens are 
in the molt, and the pullets have not reached maturity; and not 
until scientific methods were perfected, such as artificial incu- 
bating and brooding, and improved housing and feeding, was it 
possible to obtain any sort of a yield except in the spring and 
early summer. 




(Courtesy Pelaluma Chamber of Commerce) 

Fig. 279. — California type of laying house. Note that there are no dropping 

boards. 



In earlier times eggs were marketed at the time of and near 
the place where they were produced. During the spring and 
summer months there was an over-production; farmers found it 
difficult to find a market for their eggs, and at times were lucky 
to get five cents a dozen. In the South and Southwest it has 
only been in very recent years that the farmers ever bothered to 
collect their eggs during these seasons, they were that unprofit- 
able. To-day conditions are very different. Since the advent 
of the cold storage system and improved methods of transporta- 
tion, we are able to take advantage of this over-production, and 
to preserve it for our needs when there is no production. 



438 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

The farmer is therefore paid a fair price for what he previously 
wasted — usually from fifteen to twenty-five cents per dozen. 

Eggs are preserved in a number of ways. For convenience 
they may be divided into two general classes: The use of low 
temperature, from 31 to 32 degrees F.; and by excluding the air 
by coating, covering or immersing in a solution or dry substance. 
The first classification is the only way they can be preserved on 
a commercial scale, i. e., cold storage. Two methods are fol- 
lowed : storing the eggs in crates in a fairly dry atmosphere, 
and removing them from their shells and freezing them in bulk 
in cans containing about fifty pounds each. 

Under proper conditions, when fresh-laid eggs are placed in 
storage, very little change takes place in their quality, except 
evaporation. But they must not be allowed to remain long out 
of storage before they are used. It is failure on the part of the 
consumer and retailer to observe this point that results in most 
of the difficulties with storage eggs. 

As for the other methods, their aim being to exclude air con- 
veying micro-organisms to the interior of the egg, and for sup- 
pressing the growth of those already present, the results obtained 
are by no means uniform, which is largely due to the condition 
of the eggs at the time they are placed in storage. 

One of the old-fashioned domestic methods was to pack the 
eggs in bran, or in salt, or by covering them with limewater. 
Sometimes the eggs remained in good flavor, other times they 
spoiled. Their degree of preservation was commonly referred 
to as luck; whereas it was chiefly due to ignorance. Only eggs 
of known freshness and quality, and preferably non-fertile eggs, 
should be preserved by these methods. 

Twenty methods of preserving eggs were tested, with the fol- 
lowing results, according to the Department of Agriculture: 
Those preserved in salt water, brine, were all bad, not rotten, 
but unpalatable, the salt having penetrated the eggs. Of the 
eggs preserved by wrapping in paper, 80 per cent were bad ; and 
the same proportion of those preserved in a solution of salicylic 
acid and glycerin were unfit for use. Seventy per cent of the 




439 



440 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



eggs rubbed with salt were bad, and the same proportion of 
those preserved by packing in bran, or covered with paraffin or 
varnished with a solution of glycerin and salicylic acid. Of the 
eggs sterilized by placing in boiling water for 12 to 15 seconds, 
50 per cent were bad. One-half of those treated with a solution 
of alum or put in a solution of salicylic acid were also bad. Forty 
per cent of the eggs varnished with water glass, collodion or 
shellac were spoiled. Twenty per cent of the eggs packed in peat 
dust were unfit for use, the same percentage of those preserved in 
wood ashes, or treated with a solution of boracic acid and water 

glass, or with a solu- 
tion of permangan- 
ate of potash, were 
also bad. Some of 
the eggs were var- 
nished with vaseline ; 
these were all good, 
as were those pre- 
served in limewater 
or in a solution of 
water glass. 

Of the three meth- 
ods that were en- 
tirely successful, the 
water glass treat- 
ment is to be recom- 
mended. Covering eggs with vaseline requires too much time, and 
the idea is not a particularly pleasant one. The limewater treat- 
ment sometimes communicates an odor to the eggs. 

Water glass, or soluble glass, is the popular term for sodium 
silicate or potassium silicate, the commercial article often being a 
mixture of the two. The commercial product is generally used 
for preserving eggs, if it is of a good grade, inasmuch as the 
chemically pure article, which is used for medical and other pur- 
poses, is very much more expensive. Inferior grades are likely 
to be alkaline, which should not be used, as the alkali will 




Fig. 281. 



(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
-Preparing water glass for preserving eggs. 



EXPLANATION OF WATER GLASS 



441 



impart a bad flavor to the eggs. Moreover, they do not keep 
well in it. 

Water glass is offered for sale in two forms — a thick liquid hav- 
ing the consistency of molasses, and in a powder. See Fig. 281. 
The former is perhaps the most commonly used, and may be 
purchased at any drug store for about forty cents a quart. In 
larger quantities it may be bought of wholesale druggists very 
much cheaper. In buying it, it is well to state the purpose for 
which you intend to use it, and to receive some assurance as to 
its quality. 

The North Dakota Experiment Station conducted a series of 
experiments with water 
glass which were very 
successful, and their re- 
ports recommend a solu- 
tion of 1 part water glass 
in liquid form to 9 parts 
water. If the powder is 
used, a smaller quantity 
of the water glass is re- 
quired for the same 
amount of water. Only 
pure water should be 
used in making the solu- 
tion, hence it is well to 

boil the water for about twenty minutes and then allow it to 
cool before mixing it with the water glass. One gallon of the 
water glass should make sufficient solution for covering 50 dozen 
eggs, if they are economically packed; hence, at a cost of $1.25 
for the water glass, the cost of storing eggs, including the cost of 
the container, should not exceed 3 cents a dozen. 

Earthenware crocks make the best containers (see Fig. 282), 
though good results have been obtained with wooden kegs and 
barrels. In any event, the container must be thoroughly cleaned, 
scalded, scrubbed and then rinsed. The receptacles should be 
stored in a cool, clean place, preferably in a well-ventilated cellar, 




(Courtesy C. L. Opperman) 

Fig. 282. — Earthenware crocks make the best 
receptacles for preserving eggs in water glass. 



442 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



one that would be suitable for the storage of preserves. If they 
are placed where it is too warm, the eggs will not keep- well, the 
solution will evaporate rapidly, and the silicate is likely to form 
a deposit on the egg shells. 

Only clean eggs should be preserved, and by that is meant, 

only eggs which have 
always been clean, and 
not washed. Washing 
the eggs removes the nat- 
ural mucilaginous coat- 
ing on the shell, which 
was intended by Nature 
to make the egg more or 
less impervious to foreign 
substances. The fresher 
the eggs the better, 
naturally, for there is less 
likelihood of their having 
been contaminated in 
any way. Eggs known 
to be older than a week 
should not be used as a 
general practice ; and 
wherever possible use 
non-fertile eggs — those 
from flocks having no 
male birds. Sterile eggs 
do not contain an active 
life germ or embryo, con- 
sequently they are safe 
from any state of animal growth, if at any time, no matter how 
short the period may be, they were subjected to a temperature 
that would start incubation. 

As a further safeguard, it is well to candle all eggs before they 
are stored, which will determine their freshness and detect any 
eggs containing blood clots. See Fig. 283. The importance of 




(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 283. — Examining eggs by means of an 
electric candler. 



SELECTING AND PACKING EGGS 



443 



this is not over-estimated, if we consider that one or two spoiled 
eggs may ruin the entire container. 

Packing. — The eggs should be packed with the small end down, 
which will help to keep the yolks from gravitating and adhering 
to the shells. The solution is then poured over the eggs, covering 
them to a depth of about two inches. Later, if much of the 
liquid has evaporated, it may be necessary to add more of the 
solution. If one is unable to fill a receptacle with eggs at one 
operation, which is hardly likely except on a large egg farm, the 
eggs may be packed a layer at a time and covered with the liquid, 
adding more eggs and more of the solution until the container 




(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

Fig. 284. — Houses and runs should be arranged to render the greatest facility 
in caring for the flocks. 



is filled. If earthenware crocks are used and they have lids, 
place the lids on, for this will reduce the amount of evaporation. 
Otherwise, the containers should be protected in some way, and 
a good plan is to cover them with paper, glued fast, and then 
shellacked. 

Influence on Eggs. — The eggs should be removed as they are 
desired, and not kept out of the water glass for any considerable 
time. If the eggs and all other conditions are right, they may 
be kept for six to nine months and be perfectly edible. That is, 
they may be used for any purposes, but they will not have the 
consistency of fresh eggs. The white or albumen will be more 



444 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

watery than the strictly fresh egg, and the yolk will not have its 
former firmness. These are the conditions found in the storage 
egg, and they are to be expected. The membranes of the yolk 
and the entire structure of the egg are weakened by its age, yet 
their value as food is in no way impaired. 

Preserved eggs will not stand the handling that fresh eggs can 
receive, consequently the housewife should not be disappointed 
to find some of the yolks broken. When boiling preserved eggs 
a tiny hole should be pricked with. a needle in the air cell end, 
to prevent the shell from cracking. This is easily done by in- 
serting the point of the needle once. It is sometimes difficult 
to poach preserved eggs, because the yolks are apt to run into 
the whites, and the same difficulties may be met in frying them; 
but for cooking purposes generally these shortcomings are unim- 
portant. When we consider the saving made over eggs pur- 
chased from the store at certain seasons, which, by the way, are 
not always as represented, the deficiencies of the preserved eggs 
are amply compensated. 

This subject should not be construed to mean that poultrymen 
should adopt this means for other than home use ; for they should 
not. It is a mistake to think that eggs can be preserved in this 
way and then sold for fresh eggs. They cannot be made to de- 
ceive anyone. If sold, they should be offered for just what they 
are, — preserved eggs, — and no attempt made to misrepresent them. 
If sent to an egg dealer in one of the large cities, they will be 
candled and their contents will be noted. As previously men- 
tioned, since they do not withstand handling well, their contents 
are very apt to be addled, and a price paid accordingly. 

Preserved eggs are intended for home use, or for sale as such, 
and the results obtained for a number of years in every way war- 
rant a more widespread practice. The subject is now being 
taken up by many of the leading Women's Clubs throughout the 
country, and the State Experiment Stations. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
BY-PRODUCTS OF POULTRY 

The progressive poultryman is interested in any device that 
will add to his profits. He will spare no expense to make his 
fowls comfortable ; he will take great pains with the feeding and 
watering, and he will devise every conceivable plan to increase 
egg production, if that is his specialty. Not for a moment would 
he tolerate conditions that might endanger the welfare of his 
establishment. No doubt he prides himself that he is on the look- 
out for opportunities to buy and sell to the best advantage, and 
perhaps he also flatters himself that he can detect a leak in any 
of the farm's operations. 

At the same time it is likely this very same poultryman may 
be neglecting one of the most important, or at least one of the 
most stable, sources of income — the revenue to be derived from 
by-products — those things which are usually held as a nuisance. 

Many thousands of dollars are wasted each year in the careless 
handling or neglect of poultry droppings, while still other thou- 
sands are wasted because no attention is paid to saving feathers. 

The manure from fowls is rich in nitrogen; it heads the list 
of farm manures, being worth four or five times the value of stable 
manure. 

Quantity Produced. — The Maine Experiment Station con- 
ducted a series of tests on the subject of hen manure, and in one 
of its bulletins it states that the weight of night droppings from 
a fowl will average thirty pounds a year, and that this manure 
contains 0.8 pound of organic nitrogen, 0.5 pound of phosphoric 
acid, and 0.25 pound of potash. Ordinarily, the value of these 
elements would amount to a trifle over twenty cents. The way 
prices have soared on fertilizers, these elements are now worth 
considerably more. 

445 



446 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



There are no reliable data to show the total quantity of matter 
voided by the fowl, yet because the chicken is more than half its 
time off the roost, it is safe to estimate that the weight of its 
manure while off the roost will be at least thirty pounds a year, 
probably nearer forty pounds, of which a fair percentage can be 
conserved in the litter of the poultry buildings. 

The writer has visited large poultry establishments where no 
effort was made to preserve this by-product. In fact, I have 




(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig. 285. — Indiana poultry house erected on concrete walls which extend 
two feet above the ground level. Walls are built of novelty siding, making a 
very neat exterior. 



been on plants where the droppings, as they were gathered from 
beneath the perches in the laying houses, were thrown outdoors, 
actually cast on an open pile, exposed to rains and winds which 
quickly rob such matter of its chemical value. 

On one farm the disposal of the droppings was flagrantly in 
error. I might add that it was fragrantly wrong, as well. The 
houses were of the continuous type, located on a hillside, and 
erected on piling several feet from the ground. In the front of 
each building, in the yards proper, there was a huge mound of 



SAVING THE NITROGEN 447 

manure and discarded litter, probably the accumulation of several 
years. Needless to say, these mounds furnished anything but 
sanitary scratching quarters for the fowls. They were objec- 
tionable enough in dry weather. In wet weather they were 
abominable — a slimy, unsanitary, steaming, stinking mass. 
The proprietor of this place was not only wasting several hundred 
dollars annually in the loss of this by-product, but he was menac- 
ing the success and health of the flocks by imposing such un- 
sanitary conditions. 

Yet many persons wonder at the number of failures in the 
chicken business. 

Loss of Nitrogen. — Some poultrymen profess to take care of 
the droppings, and really do go to considerable trouble; but their 
care consists merely in storing the manure under cover. Keeping 
it from the weather, of course, will preserve it to a certain extent, 
because there is no leaching; but it will not prevent the escape 
of a large percentage of the nitrogen, which is its most valuable 
product, and the most expensive element. 

Physical Condition. — Undoubtedly, the chief reason for the 
great waste of poultry manure is due to its physical condition, 
which is such that it requires special treatment to conserve it. 
Its greatest value, as mentioned before, is in its nitrogen content, 
which is subject to what are termed putrefactive processes, which 
convert it into ammonia compounds. These compounds are 
highly volatile, and unless they are conserved in some way, a 
third or more of the nitrogen will pass off as ammonia gas. You 
can smell this gas in almost every poultry house, and it is par- 
ticularly noticeable in damp, humid weather, especially in the 
winter months. 

By itself, hen manure, like all other natural manures, is not 
a well-balanced fertilizer. It contains too much nitrogen in 
proportion to the amount of potash and phosphoric acid. Used 
alone it is wasteful, because of this excess of nitrogen. To 
properly balance this manure, and thus afford an economical 
distribution of the nitrogen, suitable amounts of potash salts 




Q o 



448 



USE AN ABSORBENT ' 449 

and phosphoric acid should be added. This will make it a more 
efficient fertilizer generally. 

To Preserve Manure. — From an agricultural standpoint, the 
successful treatment of poultry manure resolves itself into three 
problems : First, to prevent the loss of the nitrogen ; second, to add 
sufficient phosphorus and potassium in forms available for plant 
food to make a balanced fertilizer; and third, to improve the phy- 
sical condition so that it can be applied to the land in an econom- 
ical manner, either in a fertilizer drill or with a manure spreader. 

From the poultryman's point of view, these same questions 
are of interest, and the idea is to work out a scheme that will 
serve every purpose. The poultryman is anxious to prevent the 
loss of nitrogen, because in so doing offensive odors are kept 
down; and it is desirable to improve the condition of the drop- 
pings by drying them out, because they are handled easier at 
cleaning time, and the condition of the roosting compartments 
is vastly more sanitary. 

Acid phosphate and kainit both prevent the loss of nitrogen, 
and if these are added to the manure in connection with sawdust, 
land plaster or some other absorbent (good dry loam or peat will 
answer nicely), there will result a well-balanced fertilizer. For 
example, a mixture of 30 pounds of hen manure, 10 pounds of 
sawdust, 16 pounds of acid phosphate, and 8 pounds of kainit 
will test about 0.25 per cent nitrogen, 4.5 per cent phosphoric 
acid, and 2.0 per cent potash. 

Need for Absorbent. — The addition of kainit or acid phosphate 
by itself makes the manure quite moist and sticky, hence the 
necessity for a drier. Any absorbent may be used that can be 
obtained at low cost, for the amount of plant food added by the 
drier is of small consequence. Because of its slight acidity, 
peat has some advantage, since it will help to preserve the 
nitrogen. As a general rule, however, the farmer need only 
concern himself with the selection of a material that will keep 
down odors and absorb the moisture, since the addition of 
kainit and acid phosphate will prevent the loss of the nitrogen. 
Do not use wood ashes, for they tend to liberate the ammonia. 
29 



450 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Roosts and perches should have tight platforms under them, 
popularly known as dropping-boards, which should be cleaned 
daily, or as often as it is necessary to maintain the quarters in a 
sanitary condition. If the houses are not crowded, and the 
weather is mild and dry, once a week will probably suffice for 
cleaning. 

The absorbent should be kept conveniently at hand, and each 
time the dropping-boards are cleaned, if they are cleaned daily, 
the platforms should be sprinkled with the drier. If the boards 
are cleaned weekly, then each morning the droppings should be 



r 




Fig. 



{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
287. — Small fattening station with feed room in the rear. 



sprinkled with the absorbent material. This is quickly done, and 
will work wonders with the general improvement of the house. 
When cleaning time comes the waste matter is easily removed 
with a hoe or scraper, leaving the boards comparatively clean 
and dry. It is a big help in the winter months, for it will prevent 
the droppings freezing to the boards, which condition makes 
cleaning exceedingly laborious. 

Each time the droppings are collected they should be treated 
with the kainit and acid phosphate, and then carefully stored in a 
sheltered bin or shed. At first it will be necessary to weigh the 



MIXTURES FOR GARDEN CROPS 451 

ingredients, to insure the correct proportion, after which it will 
be possible to make a fairly accurate guess at the desired amounts. 

Any form of shelter can be used, though on a poultry farm of 
large size it will pay to erect or remodel a small building for this 
special purpose. One having a watertight floor, which will 
prevent the entrance of moisture from without, and the escape 
of any liquids from within, is the ideal shelter, and will soon pay 
for itself many times over in the increased valuation of the manure. 

Fertilizer Formulas. — To aid those who wish to compound their 
own fertilizer mixtures, the following analysis of hen manure 
is given, which is in accordance with the investigations of the 
Massachusetts Experiment Station : 

COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MANURE Percent 

Water 6 5-oo 

Nitrogen x -5° 

Potash ..;•••_ 44 

Phosphoric acid I -°9 

Calcium oxide (lime) 1 -& 2 

FORMULA FOR LAWNS Pounds 

Hen manure I ^°° 

Muriate of potash 75 

Acid phosphate I2 5 

2000 
Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 14 per cent, phosphoric acid 1.9 per 
cent, potash 2.2 per cent. Apply from one to one and a half tons to the acre. 

FORMULA FOR CORN Pounds 

Hen manure 15 10 

Acid phosphate 34° 

Muriate of potash I 5° 

2000 
Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.1 per cent, phosphoric acid 3.2 per 
cent, potash 4.0 per cent. 

FORMULA FOR FRUIT TREES Pounds 

Hen manure I5°° 

High-grade sulphate potash ^7° 

16 per cent acid phosphate 33° 

2000 
Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.1 per cent, phosphoric acid 3.3 per 
cent, potash 4.5 per cent. 



452 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

FORMULA FOR BEANS AND PEAS pounds 

Hen manure 550 

Ammonium sulphate • . 100 

High-grade sulphate potash 350 

Acid phosphate 1000 

2000 
Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.4 per cent, phosphoric acid 8.0 per 
cent, potash 8.8 per cent. 

FORMULA FOR STRAWBERRIES Pounds 

Hen manure 1000 

Nitrate of soda 100 

Ammonium sulphate 100 

High-grade sulphate potash 200 

Acid phosphate 600 

2000 
Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 2.5 per cent, phosphoric acid 5.0 per 
cent, potash 5.2 per cent: 

The disregard of the value of feathers is another source of 
waste to many poultry raisers. There is a uniformly steady 
demand for feathers in all sections of the country, some dealers 
send out buyers for this purpose, yet thousands of dollars are 
lost annually because farms pay no attention to this product. 
With some system of saving, sorting and curing the feathers, 
they can be made to defray the cost of dressing and marketing 
the poultry, which is an item worthy of consideration. As proof 
of the demand for feathers, government reports show that in 
recent years nearly $2,000,000 worth are imported annually, ex- 
clusive of ostrich and similar ornamental varieties. Evidently, 
the foreigner finds that it pays to save feathers. Why should 
the American farmer not follow this example? 

There are many kinds and grades of feathers, and prices 
vary accordingly. Geese feathers are the most highly prized, 
and bring about sixty cents a pound. When we consider that 
geese may be plucked twice a year, maybe three times, it is 
easy to see that the feathers are a source of profit, similar to the 
wool of sheep. All white feathers sell for more than colored 
ones or mixed feathers, and dry-picked feathers are preferred to 
scalded ones. Usually duck feathers are rated next to goose 



DOLLARS WASTED IN FEATHERS 



453 



feathers, though very often carefully selected white turkey feath- 
ers are sold as high as the best grades of goose feathers. The 
body feathers from white chickens come next to duck feathers, 
and some grades compare favorably with goose feathers. 

The down and very finest feathers from geese often sell for a 
dollar a pound, and are used for quilts. The finer body feathers 
of ducks and chickens are used for pillows, beds, cushions and 
so on. Tail and wing feathers, those with quills, are used mostly 
in making dusters and screens; feather boas are made from 




{Courtesy U. 5. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 288. — Removing small feathers while the birds hang by the feet. 



hackle feathers, or from feathers curled with a hot iron; thou- 
sands of pounds of feathers are glued together in the forms of 
wings and breasts in imitation of birds of paradise, which are 
no longer permitted to be imported, and sold to milliners; and 
large quantities are used in the manufacture of feather flowers, 
fans, muffs and toys. For decorative purposes the feathers of 
peacocks, large turkey feathers and the tail plumage from chick- 
ens are in great demand. If you stop to think a moment, numer- 
ous other uses for feathers will present themselves. Feather- 



454 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



bone, for example, is made from the shafts or quills of large flight 
feathers. 

Prime feathers are those that are dry-picked, clean and fully 
cured, and properly sorted. By all means keep the different 
grades separate. Tail feathers should not be mixed with body 
feathers, not even with wing feathers, unless they resemble them. 
Make bundles of the quills, and either tie them together or pack 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't. Agriculture) 
Fig. 289. — "String" killing and picking. 



them in boxes. One-sided quills, usually the flight feathers from 
the wing tips, are not worth as much as the full feathers, hence 
they should be kept separate. 

Remember, that an inferior article packed with a superior one 
will invariably reduce the value of all to the level of the inferior 
article. The call for feathers is constantly changing, conse- 
quently it is well to consult the dealers as to just what is wanted, 
and for any details in packing and shipping. Commission men 



CLEAN FEATHERS SELL BEST 



455 



who handle poultry can usually dispose of feathers to an advan- 
tage, or they will be glad to put you in touch with firms who 
make a specialty of this business. 

Feathers should be thoroughly dried before they are packed, 
or they mat together, turn musty and maybe spoil. Only a few 
precautions are necessary to save feathers properly. In the first 
place, the poultry must be dry-picked, but then, dry-picked 
poultry always brings a better price than scalded poultry, conse- 
quently it is to the grower's advantage to follow this method 
regardless of the feathers. 

Provide barrels or boxes, have them arranged beside the 
picker, and as the pluck- 
ing is done drop the body 
feathers in one receptacle 
and tail feathers in an- 
other, and so on. This 
also helps to keep the 
feathers clean, for if they 
are allowed to fall at the 
picker's feet, it is quite 
likely they will be satu- 
rated or spattered with 
blood. Before the feathers 
are stored away, spread 
the different kinds in trays 
or on the floor of a dry, 

well-ventilated room, to a depth of four to six inches, and every 
day for a week, or until they appear to be thoroughly dry, stir them 
with a stick. They are then ready to be packed or shipped. If 
they are packed green, the animal heat will make them damp 
and moldy, and greatly reduce their value. 

Cleaning. — Most of the feathers shipped to the dealers are 
just as they come from the fowls, and quite naturally they must 
be cleaned. Clean feathers, of course, bring higher prices than 
soiled ones, but whether it will pay the poultryman to go to 
this extra work is a question that each person must find out 




Fig. 290. 



(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Holding birds on the lap to re- 
move small feathers. 



456 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

himself. I am inclined to think that it pays to clean them at 
home, since they bring almost twice the price, and the work is 
not difficult. 

Manufacturers and feather houses have facilities for washing 
the feathers by machinery, treating them with live steam, and 
then drying them with wringers and subjecting them to strong 
drafts of air from fans which lay all animal odors and leave the 
feathers in a fine, fluffy condition. 

Shipping Methods. — Feathers are shipped in burlap sacks, 
tightly compressed, and the quills in boxes. Or the quills may 
be tied securely in bundles and packed in sacks. Do not pack 
the quills loosely in bags, all jumbled together, for they will not 
bring a good price. And I repeat, keep the white feathers sepa- 
rate; they are the most valuable. White chicken feathers are 
worth about eighteen cents a pound; colored chicken feathers 
about six cents a pound. 

Feathers which are too badly soiled for use as such can be 
utilized as fertilizer. They are valuable for this purpose, though 
they decay slowly and are therefore a long time in the ground 
before they become available for plant food. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE SHOW 

Educational Value. — Next to the poultry press, the show room 
has done more for the poultry industry than anything else. It is 
probably the most potent educational factor, and one of the 
greatest advertising mediums. Without these annual displays 
interest in poultry affairs would be dwarfed. The strongest 
proof of their popularity lies in the fact that the number of shows 
increases every year. 

Every one who raises good poultry should take an active in- 
terest in poultry shows, especially in the local shows. This 
includes the utility breeder as well as the fancier. The man who 
discredits the value of the show room simply because he raises 
chickens for eggs and meat is short-sighted. The progressive 
utility breeder is one who opposes mongrelism. For any pur- 
pose he appreciates that pure breeds are superior. In the show 
room not alone fine feathers and correct markings are displayed, 
but the qualifications that go to make the egg or meat type of 
bird are also shown. 

Exhibit whenever possible, but whether you are an exhibitor 
or not you will find it to your advantage to patronize the shows, 
to be in attendance, and to contribute any assistance at your 
command. One may not carry off blue ribbons, and yet win 
many things of even greater value. You can obtain a closer 
friendship with your fellow breeders, a broader view of the con- 
ditions that make for success, poultry wisdom, some new points 
on salesmanship or advertising, a better knowledge of how to 
mate next season's contestants, an exhibition of the latest im- 
proved apparatus, and last, but not least, a good time. 

It is not always the poultry association with the largest mem- 

457 



458 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



bership that is the most successful. One of the best exhibitions 
in Pennsylvania has only a dozen members, but these- men are 

POINTS 



plCKLEp 










(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 291. — Glossary chart giving the names of the various sections of a 
male fowl. In the female the cushion takes the place of the saddle of the male, 
and the sickle feathers are absent. 



up-to-date, hard workers and they work with a co-operative 
spirit. Every year they set aside the week of the show for that 



IMPORTANCE OF CONDITION 



459 



particular purpose. They don't stand round with their hands in 
their pockets, giving advice, and paying some one else to do the 
work. Except for the judges' fees, prizes, hall rent, feed, light 
and similar expenses, there are no other charges; in consequence 
the show is a financial success. 

Selecting Specimens. — There was a time when a breeder could 




{Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 

Fig. 292. — Catching coop for fowls. It is placed in front of a small door in 
the main house, through which the birds are driven into the coop. 



look over his birds, select the most promising specimens, and 
without any further ado pack them off to the show and win. 
That day is past. To-day, though a specimen ranks high in 
size, shape, color and most of the other points that contribute 
to the ideal, if it is not shown in perfect condition the chances 
for a ribbon are limited. In fact, it is the art of conditioning 



460 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

specimens, as well as breeding them, that brings success in this 
generation. 

Some breeders are opposed to conditioning, and condemn it 
as faking. There is a vast difference between the two, however, 
even though it may be difficult to establish in some cases. The 
mere fact that you have grown a fowl that conforms to certain 
requirements, such as weight, shape, the angle at which the tail 
is carried, length of shank and so on, is by no means as far as 
it is possible to exert your skill. The other fellow, let us say, 
has done the same thing, and a little more. He improved on the 
fowl's ability to keep itself sleek and clean. Maybe he influenced 
the bird's conduct, by training it to pose and strut about, to 
exhibit its virtues to the best advantage, and not object to 
handling. A wild, unruly bird is an abomination, and will try 
the patience of the most skillful judge. 

Show Conduct. — To properly demonstrate his or her points of 
superiority, a bird must be docile, accustomed to pose when the 
judge's stick is placed on its back, and in all ways assume an 
aristocratic air. These characteristics are seldom born in a speci- 
men; they are the result of careful training on the part of the 
exhibitor, and as such they are worthy of consideration. Some- 
times it requires weeks of careful handling and training before 
a bird is in perfect show condition. Many a superior bird has 
failed to be placed because it was impossible for the judge to 
keep it quiet long enough to form any idea of its correct type. 

In the selection for the show room every section of the bird 
must receive exacting scrutiny. In some breeds color must be 
more carefully considered, in others, as, for example, the Mediter- 
ranean varieties, the head points are of great importance. In 
the Hamburg breeds, if tail be not full and flowing, its long 
sickles well curved and carried at the right angle with the back, 
or if it approaches a squirrel position, the whole Hamburg char- 
acter is lost or seriously marred. If the sickles are short and the 
tail pinched, or carried in a trailing low carriage, they fail to 
attract the necessary attention. 

Like the tail, unless a fowl's shanks are of the right length, 



NEED FOR WASHING 461 

and the angle formed by thigh and shank shows apparent strength 
and perfect poise, the specimen appears at a disadvantage. The 
shanks in the Cochin classes, because of their excessively heavy 
plumage, will look short, but they must not look dwarfed. In 
the American classes we describe the length of the shanks as 
medium, meaning that they free the specimen from any stilted 
appearance ; at the same time they must not look short for the 
size of the specimen. 

Thus, different breeds require different judgment, and the 
only way to gain complete information about a particular breed 
is to study the American Standard of Perfection, which is the 
authority by which show specimens are judged. 

Birds intended for the show room should be selected a month 
or two before the show dates, and the males separated from the 
females to avoid broken feathers. They should be given more or 
less isolated quarters, where they cannot fight, or in trying to 
do so, injure their combs in any way. The specimens should be 
carefully dusted with an insect powder to free them of lice, and 
if they are badly soiled they may require a preliminary washing. 

Washing. — It is seldom necessary to wash the dark-colored 
breeds, such as the Rhode Island Reds, unless they have been 
reared in an atmosphere of coal smoke, in bare yards, or have 
become very dirty, in which case a thorough washing will mean 
a great improvement. Washing is sometimes used to improve 
the shape of certain breeds, such as Cochins and Orpingtons, 
which should have loose, fluffy plumage. By drying before a 
fire, one that is not too hot, for this will make the feathers curl, 
and fanning the feathers while they are drying, the plumage 
will remain loose and fluffy. This gives the birds a fuller, rounder 
appearance, and adds much to their beauty. 

White birds are the hardest to condition. To insure a good 
job they should be washed twice, the first time about two weeks 
before the show, and again a day or two before shipping. The 
idea of washing chickens sounds like a difficult task, but after a 
little experience it becomes a pleasure. It is surprising how 
placidly most fowls submit to the work. If the specimens have 




462 



FACILITIES FOR WASHING 463 

received proper training, which is but another term for sufficient 
petting and handling, they will allow their master to perform 
these ablutions in a very orderly fashion. A warm room, plenty 
of soft water, good soap, a couple of tubs, some towels or cloths, 
a sponge, patience and common sense are the requirements. 

Quarters. — On many of the large farms, those that make a 
specialty of exhibiting, special quarters are provided for con- 
ditioning the fowls. In fact, some of the conditioning rooms 
resemble exhibitions themselves, being fitted with show cages 
in much the same manner. The small breeder may obtain 
equally good results without going to this expense. An outside 
kitchen or sheltered porch, some place where members of the 
household frequently pass, is a good location to erect temporary 
cages, and as often as one can spare the time, handle the birds 
and make them accustomed to persons coming close to the cage. 

Always handle fowls with quiet movements yet with a firm 
grip, being careful to keep their wings closely folded against their 
bodies when removing them from the cages, so as to avoid any 
damage to the feathers. Sometimes it is best to commence the 
training at night, for light seems to fascinate them, and they are 
less wild. Teach the specimens to assume certain poses, and by 
gently stroking them between the wattles they can be made to 
retain a pose indefinitely. A few minutes spent in training every 
morning and night for a couple of weeks will usually conquer 
the wildest of birds. If you find a specimen that no amount of 
training will tame, better discard it; the chances are it will try 
to pull down the cage in the judge's presence. 

Preparations for Washing. — Everything should be in readi- 
ness before washing the birds, and a start made in the morning, 
so that by night the fowls are dried off. Fill two tubs with warm 
water of a temperature that is comfortable to the hands; use 
the first for washing and the second for rinsing and sponging. 
Provide a third tub of cold water for the final rinsing, to which 
a small amount of laundry bluing may be added if desired. This 
is a very particular part of the operation. The tub should con- 
tain enough water to entirely immerse the bird, except the head, 



464 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

because if one portion of the plumage is submerged longer than 
another, the bird will not be evenly blued. Use about as much 
bluing as would be proper for laundering clothes. 

Lather Each Section. — When all is ready, carefully immerse 
the specimen, and then starting with the head, thoroughly lather 
each section until every particle of dirt has been freed. Cover 
each feather with lather clear to the skin and then rub the feath- 
ers well between the hands. Don't be afraid of damaging the 
feathers; once wet they are very pliable and may be rubbed 
much the same as shampooing one's hair. After washing the 
upper part of the bird place a clean board across the sides of 
the tub and stand the bird on this while you wash the breast 
and body. A nail-brush or discarded tooth-brush should be used 
for washing the comb and face, legs and toes, especially the claws. 

Rinsing. — When you are assured of a good job of cleaning, 
squeeze off the greater part of the lather into the first tub, re- 
move the bird to the second tub, and with the aid of a sponge or 
dipper thoroughly rinse every trace of soap-suds and dirty water. 
If any soap is left in the plumage it will stick together. This 
rinsing operation is the secret of a satisfactory result. If any 
traces of soapy water remain the plumage will dry blotchy and 
streaked, and if bluing is used in the third tub, any presence of 
soap tends to prevent the feathers from taking the bluing evenly. 

Third Tub. — When the specimen is thoroughly sponged and 
rinsed, plunge it into the third tub of cold water, agitate and 
ruffle the feathers so that the clean water, especially if bluing 
is used, comes in contact with every section; then drain the 
bulk of the water from the plumage by squeezing it; take the 
specimen in your lap and wrap it in an absorbent towel or cloth. 

When it has ceased to drip, return the bird to the conditioning 
coop, which should be previously replenished with. clean shav- 
ings, straw or other material. A good plan is to cover the top, 
sides and back of the cage with muslin to prevent drafts, and 
leave only the front open. If convenient arrange the cages 
around a stove while the birds are drying, or in a room where 
the temperature is about 80 degrees. As previously mentioned, 




Fig. 294. — Prize-winning black Langshan cock. 
30 465 



466 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

if too hot the feathers are apt to crimp and curl, which is un- 
desirable. 

Black and red varieties may be improved in lustre and bril- 
liancy of plumage by rubbing the feathers with a little sweet 
oil. Use very little — a couple of drops on the palm of the hand 
are sufficient. 

Shanks. — Many exhibitors are careless in not cleaning the 
shanks. If the legs are soaked in warm water and well washed 
with a stiff brush, and a wooden tooth-pick is inserted under the 
scales that lodge dirt, every bit of discoloration can be removed 
as readily as one can clean his finger-nails. A little oil applied 
to the shank, or carbolated vaseline, rubbed with a woolen cloth, 
will work wonders. This brings out the true color nicely, and 
gives them a fresh, immaculate appearance. It is not generally 
known, perhaps, but fowls molt the scales on their shanks and 
toes about the same time they molt their feathers. Look care- 
fully to see that any dead scales are removed. 

The comb, wattles, face and earlobes should be rubbed with 
vaseline, using very little, but rubbing it in well. Those are the 
finishing touches and should be given attention at the last minute. 

Under Weight. — If show aspirants are a little under weight, 
careful feeding for a few weeks will usually bring them up to 
specifications. Vary the birds' rations so their appetites are not 
cloyed, using a mixture of some of the following articles: boiled 
potatoes, cornmeal, boiled rice, buckwheat meal, barley meal, 
middlings, ground oats, wheat, skimmed milk, a little beef tal- 
low, linseed meal or cottonseed meal. At the same time give 
them a little sweetened water to drink, and a good tonic or 
regulator to offset any ill effects from the forcing. If the birds 
have lost weight in shipment to the show room, as they are 
likely to do, feed them liberally on the regularly cooked and 
seasoned bologna sausage. 

In conditioning old hens that are over-fat and inactive, no 
soft food should be given except green vegetables. The whole 
grain should be largely oats scattered in deep litter. 

Many beginners make the mistake of cooping the birds too 



SHIP IN LARGE CRATES 467 

closely and too long before the show, which makes them dull 
and sluggish. A pullet is at her best just before she lays her 
first egg; after that she loses her bloom and goes off shape. 

Buff color is the hardest to maintain at an even shade. The 
secret of getting even, rich, golden buff color is never to allow 
the sun or rain to touch the surface of a showbird. Some of 
the most successful breeders of buff plumaged birds do not give 
their birds freedom in the open from the time their final plumage 
begins to show, but keep them in shady runs or under sheds. 

Shipping Crates. — Above all things, do not try to save space 
or a few cents on expressage by crowding show specimens into 
small crates. There is no economy in- it. Use standard exhibi- 
tion crates, which may be purchased at a reasonable price. If 
made at home, build them high enough for the birds to stand 
upright, and wide enough for them to turn round without in- 
juring their tails. Label or tag the crates neatly, and in strict 
accordance with the instructions of the show secretary. See 
that the crates are bedded with clean straw or some material 
that is free from dust. We have seen instances where birds that 
had been carefully washed and groomed were hopelessly marred 
by a deposit of dust on face, shanks and plumage, caused by 
scratching in dusty litter. 

To insure identification every specimen should be leg-banded, 
and the number or distinguishing feature of the band should be 
marked on the entry blank and shipping crate. 

Sportsmanship. — It has been said, any one can win blue rib- 
bons, but it takes a real fancier to lose. If there is one thing 
in a show room that is detestable, it is the exhibitor who has not 
sufficient sportsmanship to abide by the decision of the judge. 
If you can't understand an award, have it out with the judge in 
a gentlemanly way, but if he can't convince you that his opinion 
is correct, take your medicine like a man. A good loser is always 
respected and admired. 

Chickens are great imitators, and their imitations frequently 
lead to habits which are very troublesome and difficult to com- 
bat, among which are egg-eating, feather-pulling, cannibalism 




Fig. 295. — Skeleton of a 
fowl. 
I, Premaxillary bone 
or upper jaw; 2, maxilla 
or lower jaw; 3, jugal 
bone; 4, nasal cavity; 
5, eye cavity; 6, skull; 
7, neck vertebrae; 8, 
scapula; 9, humerus; 10, 
clavicles (wishbone) ; 11, 
ulna; 12, radius; 13, 
bones of forewing; 14, backbone; 15, ribs; 16, ilium; 17, pygostyle or tail 
bones; 18, breastbone; 19, ischium; 20, pubis; 21, sternum; 22, keel; 23, femur; 
24, tibia; 25, tarso- metatarsus; 26, spur; 27, digits or toes; 28, rear toe. 

468 



CLIPPING WINGS WITHOUT DISFIGURATION 



469 



and high-flying. Nothing is more distressing to the poultry 
keeper than these four habits once they have become confirmed 
practices, for then they amount to vices. They usually start 
through accidents, or from the example set by a chief offender — 
a ringleader, which should be removed as soon as the trouble is 
discovered. Then, if the offender cannot be reformed, rather 
than return it to the flock, it should be made to pay the death 
penalty. Usually, these habits can be broken up if taken in 
time and dealt with accordingly. 

Flying over the fences is likely to become one of the troubles 
among the Mediterranean 
breeds, which is not serious 
in itself, except that where 
two or more varieties are 
kept it is almost certain to 
result in cross-breeding. And 
even if one breed of chickens 
is kept, in all probability the 
poultryman has mated his 
pens with a definite purpose, 
hence he cannot tolerate pro- 
miscuous changes. For one 
thing, it may lead to inbreed- 
ing; and then again it may 
lead to unpleasant difficulties 
with one's neighbors — their gardens or flower-beds. 

Clipping Wings. — It is natural that we should hesitate to clip 
a fowl's wings, as is customarily done to prevent high-flying, 
for the usual method is sure to disfigure the bird. Clipping off 
the flight feathers completely is not necessary, however, and if 
a little care is taken in cutting, the wings can be deprived of 
their power in such a manner that the mutilated feathers will 
not be detected unless the fowl is caught and closely examined. 

Flight Feathers. — The primaries or flight feathers are the long 
quill feathers that grow on the first joint of the fowl's wing, and 
are hidden, or nearly so, when the wing is folded against the 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Fig. 296. — Commercial feeding sta- 
tion, 300 feet long, accommodating 
30,000 birds. 



470 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

body. The secondaries are the quill feathers that grow on the 
second joint of the fowl's wing, which are visible when the wing 
is closed, and which form the section known as the wing-bay. 
Together with the primaries they constitute the main feathers 
of the wing or the flying feathers. 

The ordinary way of clipping a fowl's wings is to clip off both 
primaries and secondaries within a few inches of the fleshy por- 
tion of the wings, and which always leaves a ragged, badly dis- 
figured appearance, and seriously detracts from the bird's sleek- 
ness. The practice is unnecessary and should be condemned. 

Clipping Without Disfiguration. — The following method is 
equally effective in restraining high-fliers, and while it takes a 
little more time to perform the operation, the results seem to 
warrant the additional trouble: Take the bird under your arm, 
or better still, sit down to the work and hold the fowl between 
your knees; then spread the feathers of a wing wide open, and 
with a pair of scissors clip the web or plumed portion of each 
primary close to the shaft; but do not cut off the shaft and do 
not strip the webs of the secondaries. Repeat the operation on 
the other wing. 

When the fowl resumes its natural poise and the wings are 
folded against its body, the clipped portions of the primaries 
will be hidden from view by the secondaries, and it will take a 
very acute observer to discover that the wings have been tam- 
pered with at all. 



CHAPTER XXXV . 
AILMENTS AND DISEASES 

When to Doctor. — It has been said that the best cure for ailing 
fowls is a sharp hatchet. 

The writer will not take issue with this treatment as an effec- 
tive remedy for some ailments, yet as a hard and fast rule to 
be recommended for general practice, the hatchet cure is a little 
too stringent. 

There is no question but that a sickly flock of fowls are a con- 
stant source of vexation and financial loss to their owner, and 
while it is very often unprofitable to expend much time and 
trouble doctoring them, in my experience it will pay to administer 
first-aid treatment in the early stages of a disorder; and if the 
patient responds within a reasonable time, continue the treat- 
ment; otherwise,, call in the assistance of the hatchet. 

Health Is Everything. — It does not matter how valuable a 
strain of blood there may be in a flock of chickens, how long a 
pedigree, or how many blue ribbons are back of them; how 
splendidly equipped are their buildings; nor yet how attractive 
and convenient may be the location and environment of a farm, 
the foundation for success with poultry is built on perfect health, 
— a strong, vigorous vitality, — and to this all else is subordinate. 

Sickness in some form, though it may be of a trivial nature, 
visits every flock at some time or other, and whether the trouble 
finds a permanent abiding place, a home, so to speak, in which 
to thrive, or whether it is met with an aggressive inhospitality 
and promptly driven off and exterminated, depends almost 
wholly upon the caliber and energy of the attendant in charge 
of the flock. 

Unfortunately, the beginner's farm usually endures the greatest 

471 



472 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



hardships on this score, — not because he neglects to give his 
fowls the best of care, rather because, lacking the experience and 
practical knowledge of the more seasoned poultryman, the novice 
frequently fails to detect the first symptoms of a disease. Then, 
too, when the novice does discover trouble, very often he has 
not the courage to sacrifice a few birds as a precautionary meas- 
ure. Yet drastic measures are sometimes necessary for the safety 
of the rest of the flock, just as in a serious conflagration dynamite 




{Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

Fig. 297. — Open-front house with irregular gable roof designed to afford suffi- 
cient head room inside where it is required. 



is used to raze whole blocks of houses, and thus check the spread 
of the fire. 

Trivial or Contagious. — Poultry diseases may be divided into 
two general classes : Those of a more or less trivial nature, which 
will respond to flock treatment through the drinking water or 
feed, and those of a highly contagious, virulent action, which 
require individual treatment — if treated at all, for in badly in- 
fected birds it is usually advisable to kill them at once and destroy 
the carcass, thereby preventing the spread of contagion. 

Burying the carcass, unless it is buried very deep, is not always 



LOOK FOR SYMPTOMS 473 

a safe method ; for at some future time it may be dug up by a 
dog, or accidentally plowed up, and the infection again spread 
about the premises. Instead, such a carcass should be burned, 
or put in quicklime. 

Indications of Illness. — The competent poultryman makes it 
his business to note the physical condition of every bird, 
every day — which is a much simpler task than it sounds. In 
the early morning and at feeding times, it is an easy matter to 
detect a bird that is feeling out of sorts. If a fowl remains on 
the perches, with ruffled feathers, head drawn close to its body, 
and is otherwise sluggish and disinterested, it should be taken 
out of the pen and examined. Or if a fowl is seen to rub its eye 
on its wing frequently, or if a soiled spot appears on its wing; 
if it sneezes often, gasps for breath, mopes in the corners and has 
a purplish comb — these conditions are all abnormal, and the 
fowl should be removed for a closer examination and diagnosis. 

Detention Coop. — On a farm of any size there should be a 
small house or coop isolated from the rest of the buildings, 
which should be equipped with a few cages, or crates, and desig- 
nated as a hospital, or detention ward. When a fowl is discovered 
out of condition, if only with a cold, it should be removed to this 
hospital, carefully examined for the nature of its ailment, and 
treated accordingly. A small closet should be convenient, fitted 
for the storage of bottles, clean rags, a sponge, basin, and so on. 
With the knowledge of a few simple drugs and remedies many of 
these hospital inmates can be promptly and permanently cured. 

Determine the Cause. — When an abnormal condition is first 
discovered, the poultryman should analyze every symptom, not 
only with the view to ascertaining the nature of the ailment, 
but to determine the cause of the disorder. There is sure to be 
a cause, and of course it should be immediately removed or cor- 
rected, to prevent further trouble. It is then up to the atten- 
dant to decide if the ailment is curable, and what the chances 
are for an early recovery. If the chances are poor, he had better 
stifle all sympathetic feelings and sentence the victim to be 
executed — the hatchet. 



474 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



Simple Remedies. — The following drugs are simple remedies 
that should be found in the poultryman's dispensary,. and their 
actions are no doubt familiar to everyone. They are all inex- 
pensive, and a supply should be kept on hand for instant use. 
Like the "stitch in time," first-aid treatment in the early stages 
of a fowl's ailment is the secret of a successful cure. 

Castor oil is one of the most commonly used remedies for dis- 
orders of the crop and other digestive organs. It not only removes 
the irritant, but also helps to soothe and heal any inflamed tis- 
sues. In fact, it is a pretty good rule to commence the treatment 




/% 



Fig. 298. 



(Courtesy Atlantic Farm) 
-Pen of Pekin breeders. Duck houses are simple affairs. 



of every ailment with a dose of castor oil. Give about two table- 
spoonfuls to a grown bird, administering it with the aid of a 
dropper or glass syringe. 

Epsom salts and Rochelle salts are both splendid laxatives, 
and will correct liver troubles and relieve diarrhea. Half a tea- 
spoonful is the correct dose. In treating a large flock, the salts 
may be mixed with the mash, — but the fowls should first be 
allowed to become quite hungry, to insure their eating a sufficient 
quantity of the mash. 

Bi-carbonate of soda, or Baking Soda, will relieve a sour or 



MEDICINE LOCKER 475 

distended crop, which is equivalent to indigestion. An amount 
sufficient to cover a dime is the average dose for a single bird. 
For flock treatment, dissolve a half-teaspoonful in a quart of 
water, and keep it before the birds for several days. 

Tincture of aconite is a well-known drug for the relief of colds, 
catarrh, and in allaying fever. About five drops is the custom- 
ary dose for a bird. 

Sulphate of magnesia, ten drops to a pint of drinking water, 
will relieve costiveness. 

Spirits of camphor is another good remedy for slight cases of 
diarrhea. Add a few drops to the drinking water. 

Quinine will work wonders with colds and chicken pox; and 
Iron, Quinine and Strychnine tablets make an excellent tonic 
for birds whose vitality has been lowered through loss of blood, 
excessive breeding or illness. 

Bismuth nitrate will frequently cure the more serious intes- 
tinal disorders, — bloody diarrhea or enteritis. 

Tincture of nux vomica, about ten drops to a quart of drinking 
water, is recommended for cases of leg weakness, and it also stimu- 
lates the digestive organs. 

Calomel is another excellent corrective for liver troubles, and 
a strong laxative. Use a quarter of a grain to a grain. 

Carbolated vaseline, or some one of the petroleum products, 
should be on hand to use in anointing wounds and sores, and 
for chicken pox, scaly legs, and frozen combs. 

Gas tar, or one-third carbolic acid mixed with two-thirds gly- 
cerine, are two other remedies for scaly leg. Cover the affected 
shanks with the gas tar, and allow it to remain until it wears off. 
The scales will come off with the tar. 

Liver Pills. — When a fowl is somewhat mopish, the ordinary 
family liver pill will very often correct this sluggishness, much 
the same as it does with the human being. 

Spirits of turpentine and sweet oil will usually relieve any 
bronchial affection, such as a rattling or bubbling sound in the 
throat. One part turpentine to five parts oil is the proper mix- 
ture: administer about ten drops daily to the individual bird. 



476 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Fowls seem more susceptible to roup, canker, and other 

respiratory derangements in the fall of the year than, at other 

seasons, and as either preventative or balm for these ills, the 

Missouri State Experimental Station reports excellent results 

from the use of the following mixture: 

Magnesium Sulphate 10 ounces 

Sulphur 3 " 

Magnesium Oxide I ounce 

Sulphate of Iron : 2 ounces 

Ground Ginger 2 " 

A tablespoonful is fed in moist mash for 12 birds, for three 
days. The Magnesium Sulphate acts on the intestines, as pre- 
viously mentioned ; the 
. .g^gtog Sulphur is a general anti- 

septic; the Magnesium 
^^^^^^^^^^^^^W^ Oxide acts on the kidneys ; 
Aj^JEIj^rN $^^$i Sulphate of Iron stimu- 

lates the blood; and 
Ground Ginger is bene- 
ficial to all organs. 

A strong disinfectant, 
preferably one of the coal- 
tar products, should be in- 
cluded in the poultry- 
man's dispensary, and it 
should be used freely as a 
j^Jljy . -, ■ J spray whenever an infec- 

Fig. 299.— Good type of feeder. Note the tious disease breaks out. 
short, thick head. Permanganate of pot- 

ash is frequently used in 
the drinking water for antiseptic and disinfecting purposes, and will 
prevent the spread of colds, coughs, bronchitis and similar troubles. 
Use enough of the crystals to turn the water a deep purple color. 
About as much as would cover a dime is sufficient for a gallon 
of water. 

It would seem as though chickens were heir to as many ills 
as man yet since most of them are but very occasional, we need 




POULTRY AILMENTS 



477 



only concern ourselves with the more common troubles herein- 
after mentioned, together with their principal symptoms and 
causes. 

Asthenia, or "Going Light." — A term applied to fowls that 
persistently lose weight, become emaciated, anemic, weak and 
unproductive. It is not a form of consumption, as some sup- 
pose, but may be due to several causes. Sometimes it is the 
result of lice or mites; at other times it is due to worms — this 
is the most common cause; or the birds may be afflicted with 
bacteria harbored in the 
small intestine, which 
subsist on the food con- 
sumed by the fowls. On 
investigation, if no defect 
is found in the rations, one 
of the birds should be 
killed and examined for 
worms. If many are 
found, the emaciation is 
probably due to this cause, 
and the flock should be 
treated accordingly. See 
chapter on Worms. 

If no worms are found, 
and the fowls are not 
bothered with lice and 
mites, and their rations 

and living quarters are O. K., the cause of the trouble is probably 
infection by microbes mentioned above. In this case a slight in- 
flammation may be noted. The treatment should be, first, the 
removal of the bacteria by purgation, using Epsom salts, castor oil 
or calomel, following which the flock should be given a tonic to 
build up the system, and an abundance of easily digested foods. 
At the same time look carefully into the housing conditions; 
clean and disinfect everything. 

The following tonic is recommended : 30 grains each of pow- 




Fig. 300. — Indifferent type of feeder, 
crow-like shape of head. 



Note 



478 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

dered fennel, anise, coriander seed, cinchona; I dram each of 
powdered gentian and ginger; and 15 grains of powdered sul- 
phate of iron. Mix these ingredients thoroughly. Dosage: 
from two to four grains of the mixture added to the food twice 
a day for each fowl. 

Bagging Down. — The posterior parts of a fowl hang down and 
even drag on the ground. It is not a disease, but the result of 
improper feeding and lack of exercise, an over-fat condition, and 
very hard to correct. Better kill such specimens for the table; 
they are not sick birds, remember. 

Blackhead {Enter o-H epatitis) . — This is a disease that attacks 
young turkeys, and is seldom found in other fowls. In the course 
of the disease the head generally becomes dark colored or nearly 
black, hence the name. It is an infection of the liver, similar in 
its nature to human dysentery. It is highly contagious and very 
difficult to cure. If the birds are in an advanced stage of the 
disease, they had better be killed, and the bodies carefully dis- 
posed of, because thus far the treatment for blackhead has not 
given satisfactory results. If treated at all, the afflicted birds 
must be isolated. 

The symptoms are loss of appetite and condition, diarrhea, 
and finally prostration. The liver is found to be more or less 
enlarged, and spotted with yellowish or greenish-yellow nodules. 

The remedies used are sulphur 5 grains, sulphate of iron 1 
grain; or benzonaphthol 1 grain, salicylate of bismuth 1 grain; 
or sulphate of iron 1 grain, salicylate of soda I grain. These 
remedies are followed by a purgative. Fifteen grains of catechu 
to the gallon of drinking water is found to be beneficial. 

Do not be afraid to use the axe in this disease, because sacri- 
ficing a few birds may be the means of saving the balance of the 
flock. Dissemination of this contagion has made some localities 
almost impossible to raise turkeys. Every effort should be made 
to check the disease. 

Bronchitis. — Usually caused by exposure to sudden changes in 
temperature, dampness or irritating particles of dust, like lime. 
The symptoms are dullness, loss of appetite, coughing, which is 



BUMBLE FOOT 



479 



accompanied by a whistling or bubbling sound in the throat. 
Though simply an inflammation of the breathing tubes, which 
may be treated successfully in large flocks, if only a few birds 
are affected, it is well to isolate them and administer the tur- 
pentine remedy. 

Baldness. — See Favus. 

Blood Spots in Eggs. — This trouble is due to the escape of 
blood from ruptured blood-vessels, which generally occurs at the 
time the yolk is freed from the ovary and enters the oviduct, 
where it receives the coat- 
ing of albumen. These 
hemorrhages are thought 
to be the result of great 
functional activity and 
congestion induced by the 
excessive use of stimulants 
or highly concentrated 
foods; or they may be 
caused by the general 
breaking down of a hen's 
vitality. 

Relieving any causes 
which might lead to con- 
gestion or inflammation is 
the logical way to attempt 
a remedy. Reduce the 
amount of grain or animal 

food, and increase the green food. Give a little Epsom salts in the 
drinking water. Some hens habitually lay eggs with blood spots or 
streaks, and these should be killed for the table, to escape this 
nuisance. 

Bumble Foot. — One of the minor ailments. A callus or corn 
that forms on the bottom of the foot and later becomes a pain- 
ful swelling attended by ulcerations. It is caused by the birds' 
jumping from perches that are too high, bruises and irritations 
from splinters. A fowl so afflicted will limp and stand on one 




Fig. 301. — Poor feeder. A cripple, or bird 
off feed. 



480 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

foot. Painting with tincture of iodine will dissipate the callus 
if taken in the early stages; but if it has ulcerated, open it, 
remove any pus, cleanse the wound with an antiseptic, and then 
bind the foot in an application of carbolated vaseline. 

Canker. — This is probably the most disgusting ailment, and 
is usually caused by contaminated food, also chronic cases of 
roup. It is very contagious, hence the sick birds should be iso- 
lated, and if they are badly afflicted, it is advisable to kill them 
and destroy their carcasses. A yellow, cheesy, foul-smelling 
matter forms in the corners of the mouth and in the windpipe, 
which when removed reveals the raw flesh. Remove this foreign 
matter and apply carbolated vaseline, or sulpho-carbolate of 
zinc on the sores. See Roup. 

Catarrh. — See Roup. 

Chicken Pox {Bird Pox). — While this is contagious and will 
spread rapidly throughout an entire flock, it is not necessarily a 
serious trouble. It is usually caused by dampness or filth. It 
may be introduced by new birds, or exhibition birds which return 
from show rooms infected. Or it may be carried into the flock 
by pigeons, sparrows and other birds, or by the attendant. 
Scabby, yellow nodules or pimples appear on the face and comb, 
especially around the beak, and frequently discharge a. thick, 
yellow matter. Isolate the sick birds at once, and anoint the 
sores with carbolated vaseline. Administer the iron, quinine 
and strychnine tonic, or a good poultry regulator, and simple, 
nourishing food. 

Cholera.— See Enteritis. A bacterial disease caused by con- 
taminated food or drinking water. Highly contagious, with a 
heavy mortality. 

Colds. — See Roup. 

Crop Bound. — A hard and swollen condition of the. crop caused 
by an obstruction to the gullet from the crop, or by gorging large 
quantities of grain, which swell and ferment. This trouble is 
described elsewhere in a special chapter. 

Diarrhea. — See White Diarrhea, described in a separate 
chapter. 



ENTERITIS 



481 



Egg Eating. — This is a pernicious habit that is almost always 
the result of accidents, though the accidents are very often due 
to the carelessness or ignorance of the keeper. Cramped nests 
or an insufficient number of nests are generally responsible for 
broken eggs, the hens taste them, form a liking for them, and 
thenceforth eat them whenever an opportunity presents itself. 
The ringleaders should be caught and broken of the habit, even 
if they have to be killed for the table. If not, they are sure to 
set a bad example to the rest of the flock. This trouble will 




(Courtesy Atlantic Farm) 

Fig. 302. — Ducks require low fences, which make it possible for the attendant 
to walk from yard to yard without the bother of entrance gates. 

spread through a flock much the same as Cannibalism or Feather- 
eating. As a precautionary measure, install your nests in ac- 
cordance with the best practices, as described in the chapter on 
poultry house fittings. 

Enteritis. — This disease is caused by irritant poisons or bac- 
teria, which develop an inflammation of the mucous membrane 
of the intestines. The fowls have poor appetite, roughness of 
feathers, pale comb, and their excrement is of a greenish color, 
or bluish green. The trouble is almost always fatal if allowed 
to reach an advanced stage. Administer nitrate of bismuth, 

31 



482 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

keep the birds isolated, and give them olive oil for nourishment. 
Clean up the premises, look for the cause of the trouble, and 
disinfect all drinking vessels and other utensils. This disease is 
quite serious, and can create havoc with the strongest, healthiest 
flocks. It is one of the cholera-like diseases. 

Favus or White Comb. — This is a contagious disease caused by 
growth of a fungus, the filaments or roots of which do not pene- 
trate deeply into the skin, but remain very near the surface, 
consequently the general health of the victim is not seriously 
impaired in the early stages. The trouble usually breaks out on 
the comb first, then the wattles and earlobes and, finally, the 
neck and other parts of the body are affected. 

When limited to the comb and wattles, the trouble responds 
very nicely to treatment, and may even disappear of its own 
account. If it has invaded the feathered portions of the body 
it is extremely obstinate, and in very severe cases the "hatchet 
and block" is the safest and most satisfactory remedy. 

First, wash the affected parts with warm water containing a 
mild disinfectant, at the same time removing any scabs that can 
be rubbed off without bleeding, and then apply sulphur ointment 
or carbolated vaseline. Good results have been obtained by 
painting the spots with tincture of iodine. Some breeders recom- 
mend an ointment of red oxide of mercury i part and vaseline 
8 parts. 

Feather-eating. — See chapter on Crop Bound. 

Gapes. — See chapter on Worms. 

Indigestion. — See chapter on Crop Bound. 

Leg Weakness. — See chapters on the Care of Chicks. 

Lice. — See chapter on Parasites. 

Limber Neck. — Partial loss of control of the muscles of the 
neck, and is generally caused by eating putrid animal matter. 
A fowl so afflicted cannot hold its head upright, but twists it 
around from side to side and staggers about drunkenly. The 
disease is not contagious, though very often it is stubborn to 
cure. A pill of asafetida night and morning for a couple of days 
is a good remedy, also, borax in water, a tablespoonful to a pint, 



ROUP 483 

pouring a large dose of the solution down the fowl's throat three 
or four times a day. Castor oil and turpentine and warm water 
are two other highly recommended remedies. 

Mange (Scabies). — This is caused by mites which live at the 
base of the feathers, where they bite the skin and cause intense 
itching. It is quickly spread throughout the flock, and while 
the general health of the birds does not suffer greatly, still the 
trouble is discomforting, and if allowed to continue the birds 
will lose flesh and become unproductive. Moreover, as the mites 
spread the plumage is destroyed until the birds are almost naked. 

Apply to the affected parts, and for some distance around 
them, an ointment made by mixing I part flowers of sulphur 
with 4 parts of vaseline or lard. Carbolated vaseline may be 
used, too, and if it is mixed at home, use I part carbolic acid to 
50 parts of vaseline. It is sometimes beneficial to wash the irri- 
tated surfaces with a solution of creolin or some other disinfectant. 

Mites. — See chapter on Parasites. 

Pasting Up. — See chapter on White Diarrhea. 

Parasites. — See special chapter devoted to these pests. 

Roup. — This is probably the most dangerous, fatal and con- 
tagious disease with which the poultry man must contend, and 
it is certainly the most disagreeable to treat. It is a contagious 
catarrh, resembling the more malignant forms of influenza in 
the larger animals and in man; this and canker, which is a 
chronic form of roup, are generally the aftermath of such ail- 
ments as colds. 

The first symptoms of roup are similar to those of a cold, 
except in the former there are more fever, dullness and prostration. 
There is sneezing, accompanied by a watery discharge from the 
eyes and nostrils. Later this discharge becomes thick and ob- 
structs the breathing, and as the inflammation, which begins in 
the nasal passages, extends to the eyes and the spaces below the 
eyeballs, the fevered condition hardens the secretions into a 
cheesy matter, which accumulates in the tissues of the head, 
causing the eyes or other parts of the face to bulge. This cheesy 
matter has a very offensive smell, sometimes it obstructs the 



484 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



windpipe and the victim is suffocated. Other times the head 
swells twice its normal size, blinding both eyes, and the victim 
is a miserable-looking creature, indeed. When this stage is 
reached it is quite useless to attempt a cure. 

The most common form of roup is an exaggerated cold, and 
nothing worse. It -is caused by exposure for a prolonged period 
to those conditions which produce colds. Obviously, the first 
step is to rectify the conditions which foster the disease. Imme- 




Fig. 303. — The ordinary household scales come in handy for the poultryman. 



diately a case of roup is detected, it is a good plan to treat the 
entire flock with a roup preventative for about a week, or until 
one is assured the remaining birds have not been infected. This 
may be done through the drinking water. Sick birds should 
be isolated at once, and the houses whence they are removed, 
particularly the drinking fountains, thoroughly cleaned and dis- 
infected. 

Treatment for roup, if it is to be treated at all, must begin in 



SCALY LEG 485 

the early stages. The affected membranes should be given appli- 
cations of antiseptic and healing mixtures, either sprayed on, or 
by dipping the fowl's head in the solution. The following are 
simple remedies for this treatment: One ounce of permanganate 
of potash to three pints of water, or one and one-half ounces of 
boric acid and a half ounce of borate of soda to a quart of water, 
or one ounce of peroxide of hydrogen to three ounces of water, 
or a two per cent solution of carbolic acid. 

There are several reliable roup remedies on the market which 
have given excellent results for a number of years; they should 
be used according to the directions which accompany them. 

Chlorate of potash, alone, or mixed with sulphur, is recom- 
mended for dusting on the inflamed tissues caused by cankerous 
growths. Another way is to dissolve I part of chlorate of pot- 
ash in 10 parts of glycerin, and swab it on the affected parts. 

Scabies. — See Mange. 

Scaly Leg. — This condition is caused by a parasite that lives 
under the scales of the shanks. The scabs or crusts that appear 
is the excrement thrown off by these mites. It can be cured by 
rubbing the shanks with an ointment containing a little sulphur 
or kerosene. Gas tar is excellent, also — a mixture of one-third 
carbolic acid and two-thirds glycerin. The trouble is harmful 
in that it is very discomforting to the fowls. It is easily spread 
by fowls coming in contact with the parasites on the perches. 
No careful poultryman will tolerate this condition, and there is 
no excuse for its existence, though it is frequently seen. 

Sore Head. — See Mange or Favus. 

Vent Gleet. — An inflammation of the cloaca, which causes fre- 
quent passages of a white, offensive discharge that collects on 
the skin and feathers around the vent. It is very difficult to 
cure, and such specimens are better off dead. Though not con- 
tagious, the trouble is transmissible, especially by the males, 
consequently such birds should be removed from the flock. 

White Diarrhea. — See chapter on this subject. 

Worms. — See chapter on this subject. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
CROP BOUND 

Common Form of Indigestion. — Almost everyone who raises 
chickens in any numbers will be troubled at some time or other 
with an ailment known as crop bound. It is a form of indi- 
gestion, perhaps the commonest form of crop trouble, and is 
generally caused by improper feeding. The poultryman, how- 
ever, is not always to blame, for the condition is very often 
brought about by the stupidity or gluttony of the fowls. 

Easy to Detect. — As the name implies, crop bound is a com- 
paction or hardening of the crop, and fortunately, it is easily 
discernible. Instead of the crop having a full, close appearance, 
in fact, scarcely noticeable in the well-proportioned bird, it is 
seen to hang down like a bag, and on closer inspection it will be 
found to be greatly enlarged, hard and heavy. The fowl thus 
afflicted is usually droopy and inactive, and frequently a bad- 
smelling liquid runs from the mouth. In an advanced stage of 
the ailment the fowl's comb will be purple in color, and the bird 
may gasp for breath. 

Two Forms. — Generally speaking, there are two forms of crop 
bound : One is the result of a weakened or paralyzed condition 
of the crop muscle, and is usually observed in old fowls whose 
vitality has been impoverished by old age and improper care, or 
in chicks of low stamina. It is possible to relieve this condition 
by careful medical treatment, though a permanent -cure is sel- 
dom effected. Therefore, unless the victim is considered very 
valuable for some particular purpose, it is generally more profit- 
able to kill the sufferer, and to devote one's time and energy to 
correcting the conditions that brought about the trouble. 

Clogging of the Crop. — The other form of crop bound is induced 

486 



FIRST-AID TREATMENT 487 

by a clogging of the outlet of the crop by twisted grass or rough 
grain. It occurs most frequently among birds that are fed in- 
sufficient green food, and as a result of this craving they attempt 
to swallow pieces of hay, straw, tough blades of grass, cabbage 
ribs or some other bulky article. This obstructs the outlet of 
the crop and finally becomes so entangled and solidified with 
other food that the mass presses on the windpipe, or fermenta- 
tion sets in and induces a form of poisoning. 

Occasionally a ration contains too much middlings, or other 
sticky meal, fed either dry or moist, which, under certain condi- 
tions, bake together and clog the passageway. This food, al- 




(Coitrtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 

r ig. 304. — Brooder house. Note the covered platform in front of the building, 
under which the chickens emerge from the house. 



though taken into the body, offers no nourishment until it is 
digested, consequently the bird continues to eat, which only dis- 
tends the crop further. In a few days the fowl shows signs of 
weakness, and unless the obstruction is removed the bird dies. 

If the trouble is discovered early, the treatment is compara- 
tively simple and a cure is virtually assured. In the latter stages 
a surgical operation is necessary which, though simple in itself, 
is often accompanied by other complications that prove fatal. 

Experienced, practical poultrymen make it their business to 
inspect their flocks very closely every day, especially at meal 
times and in the early morning. At these times it is easy to 
detect birds that are out of condition, no matter how trivial 



488 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

may be their ailment. If a fowl remains on the roost after day- 
light, or manifests little or no interest in food, it should -be caught 
and examined. If the bird is crop bound the symptoms will be 
noticed as soon as the fowl is handled. The bird will be slow to 
avoid capture, its crop will be distended and hard, and in most 
cases a sour-smelling liquid will run from its mouth. 

The treatment usually prescribed is an injection of castor oil 
or olive oil into the crop. If these are not available, melted lard 
will answer the purpose, or warm water, although the latter is 
not so active or effective in its action. A good plan is to begin 
by draining off any liquid in the crop, which may be accomplished 
by holding the bird head downward. Then inject the oil, about 
two tablespoonfuls, using a medicine dropper, small syringe or 
spoon. Hold the bird upright and gently knead and work the 
mass in the crop. After some minutes this operation will cause 
the injected liquid to mix with the solids, and when the mass is 
thoroughly broken up an effort should be made to remove it 
through the mouth. 

Dislodging the Obstruction. — This is sometimes a matter of 
difficulty, particularly if the offending substance is long and 
fibrous, such as grass. If the massaging process is ineffectual in 
removing the contents of the crop through the mouth, and the 
case is not a serious one, it may be well to wait and see if the 
trouble will not pass off naturally. Kneading the crop some- 
times dislodges the obstruction in the outlet from the crop, and 
with the aid of the oil the mass will be assimilated. 

When to Operate. — If, however, the crop is not materially 
reduced in six hours, there is but one remedy — an operation. 
It is a very simple one, requires no great skill, and if the fowl is 
in a vigorous condition it has a splendid chance to recover. 
Young chickens weighing under a pound are too small to undergo 
the surgical treatment, and had better be killed. 

Instruments. — The task will be much easier if one person holds 
the bird while another performs the operation. The only instru- 
ments required are a sharp knife, lancet or scalpel, a pair of small 
scissors, a small spoon, preferably a mustard spoon — one that 




489 



490 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

has a narrow bowl, and a needle threaded with white silk or sur- 
gical gut. Common sense dictates that the instruments should 
be absolutely clean, also the operator's hands, so as to prevent 
infection. 

The first step is to trim the feathers from a space about one 
by two inches over the center of the crop, and to moisten and 
brush aside any other feathers that may be in the way. Clip 
the feathers with the scissors; do not pull them out. Wipe the 
bird's flesh with an antiseptic where the incision is to be made, 
and with the fingers of one hand draw the outer skin fairly tight; 
then make an incision with the point of the knife. Insert the 
point of the scissors and enlarge the cut until it is about an inch 
and a quarter long. Separate this outer skin by spreading the 
slit, and then make a similar incision in the crop wall. 

Care should be taken to make the cut where there are fewest 
blood-vessels, and to avoid the largest ones altogether. A little 
blood will flow, and this should be removed with bits of absorbent 
cotton. The cut should not be made any larger than is neces- 
sary to gain access to the interior of the crop and to remove its 
contents with the small spoon. Sometimes the mass is so hard 
that it is difficult to remove it without first manipulating to 
break it up. It is usually very offensive, and considerable pa- 
tience is necessary to perform the work thoroughly. The opera- 
tion is practically painless, so that the operator need have no 
unnecessary qualms over the victim's comfort. 

Washing the Crop. — After the contents are thoroughly re- 
moved, the crop should be washed out with a weak solution of 
boracic acid, permanganate of potash, or a similar non-poisonous 
disinfectant. To be sure that the fermented matter is entirely 
removed it is well to insert a finger in the orifice, otherwise the 
whole process may have to be done over again, or the operation 
will be unsuccessful. This done, the incision must be drawn 
together and sewed up. A bent needle is best, making the stitches 
about an eighth inch apart and tying them carefully. Sew the 
inner skin first, and then the outer skin, and tie each stitch 
separately. 



FEATHER EATING A VICE 491 

Next swab off the wound with the antiseptic solution, and 
place the fowl in a clean, comfortable coop to rest. Food should 
be withheld for about twenty-four hours, and then only light 
feeds of an easily digested mash should be given at the regular 
feeding hours. In about a week's time the bird will have recov- 
ered sufficiently to be returned to the flock. 

Some authorities advocate making the incision at the right of 
the neck and at the top of the crop, at the point where it is 
quite easy to see the contents of the crop, owing to the trans- 
parent nature of the flesh at this point. After the contents are 
removed the cut is allowed to heal naturally, without stitches, 
which is practicable because the opening is made in the top of 
the crop wall. In either method the subject must be kept iso- 
lated and on a very light diet. If permitted to join the flock too 
soon, the other birds will be attracted by the wound, and they 
will peck and aggravate it. 

Mortality. — Many poultrymen consider it rather futile to op- 
erate for crop bound because the chances for recovery are dis- 
couragingly small. This is true in a sense, yet in most cases 
death is not the result of the operation, but because the com- 
plaint had reached an advanced stage. It is easy to understand 
that as soon as fermentation starts, poisons are formed, which 
are quickly absorbed by the victim's body, and which will even- 
tually prove fatal. Or the crop may be so enlarged and create 
such pressure against the windpipe that breathing is made ex- 
ceedingly difficult, and this is a great strain on the heart. As a 
general rule, if the fowl's comb has not turned a purplish color 
as the result of the trouble, it is well worth while trying to 
operate. If, however, the bird is already weakened,, one had 
better use "the axe." 

Feather Pulling. — One of the most distressing, troublesome and 
unmanageable habits of fowls is feather pulling, or feather eat- 
ing, and it is this vice that frequently brings about a crop bound 
condition. Sometimes the feathers are merely plucked, for no 
apparent reason except the "joy" of plucking them, and at 
other times they are eaten as fast as they are removed. Quite 



492 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



naturally they are extremely indigestible; they are likely to 
form a mat inside the crop, and to obstruct the canal leading 
from the crop to the gizzard. 

Causes. — The vice usually starts through fighting or accidents, 
or it may develop through lack of sufficient mineral and animal 
food — generally from insufficient animal food. It is also caused 
by idleness — close confinement or no opportunity for exercise. 
The vice spreads rapidly throughout an entire flock, unless the 
ringleaders are promptly caught and removed. Erroneous meth- 
ods of feeding and management are largely responsible for this 







(Courtesy Atlantic Farm) 
Fig. 306. — Ducks can be raised without water, but not so successfully as with it. 



trouble, so that the poultryman seldom has anyone to blame but 
himself, and the same general conditions are likely to encourage 
egg eating — another pernicious habit. 

There is no medical treatment for feather eating, any more 
than the amount of animal food should be increased, and the 
fowls given as much liberty and exercise as possible. If the pens 
are small and the yards are destitute of green food, and there is 
no room in which to increase the range, the habit is sometimes 
controlled by changing the fowls to a different pen. This change 
in environment may arrest their attention long enough for the 
alteration in their diet to satisfy their peculiar craving for blood. 



SUPPLY MINERAL SUBSTANCES 493 

An old-fashioned remedy was to apply something very bitter 
to the plumage, such as oil of aloes, but in the writer's experience 
this practice was little more than a faith cure; the fowls continue 
to pluck the aloe-flavored feathers as though they considered 
this bitterness a relish. The nearest approach to a successful 
method for controlling the vice is to cut the tip of the lower 
part of the beak, which tends to prevent the fowl from getting a 
firm grip on the feather. 

Occasionally feather pulling is developed by lice and mites, 
consequently the caretaker should investigate his fowls for these 
pests and treat them accordingly. The important measure 
adopted should be a well-balanced ration, one that contains skim 
milk, beef scrap, fish scrap, meat bone, vegetables or green feed, 
and frequently varied. A piece of fresh beef hung from a nail 
where the hens will have to jump for it slightly is one of the 
surest tricks for dissipating the feather pulling habit. 

Failure to furnish the flock with a liberal supply of mineral 
substances is one of the contributing causes of crop bound and 
indigestion. Nature has not endowed birds with teeth as a 
means of masticating their food, but she has given them the 
equivalent in the gizzard. This is a tough, muscular organ, so 
situated that all food taken into the mouth must pass through it. 
When the food is received in the crop it remains there until 
soaked and acted upon by a secretion similar to that of the saliva 
in the mouth of animals. This partially digested food gradually 
leaves the crop and passes into the gizzard, where it is ground 
up, and thence it goes to the intestines, where, after being acted 
upon by other fluids, it passes on and the nutriment is absorbed. 

Supply Grit. — We know that the gizzard is marvelously strong 
when provided with sharp grit, for it is the rotary action of these 
grindstones that crushes and masticates the solids. Hard, sharp 
substances are necessary, and without them the harder parts of 
the food are not digested. Husks and green food accumulate 
between the crop and the gizzard, and frequently cause a stop- 
page so that nothing but liquids can pass. In time this passage 
is completely obstructed, and the result is a sour or bound crop. 



494 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

A person may live with defective teeth for years, or perhaps 
with none at all, yet we know that such persons seldom enjoy 
their food or good health. Surely, if the birds do not have the 
means of properly masticating their food, they can neither be 
healthy nor derive the greatest benefits from their food. In 
consequence they cannot be expected to give their master a good 
return for their food and care. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
WORMS 

Losses from Worms. — The question of worms in poultry is of 
far greater importance toward the success of the venture than 
most poultrymen realize. Well-built houses, carefully prepared 
food, close attention to sanitation, and good care generally are 
of little avail if the fowls are infested with worms. Where there 
are worms losses follow: if not actual death, at least there is a 
falling off in the egg yield. In any event the poultry keeper is 
not getting the proper returns from his feed and care, which is 
the equivalent to loss. 

A postmortem examination at one of the State Egg Laying 
Contests suggested a careful examination of the dropping 
boards, which finally led to the conclusion that some of the pens 
were infested with intestinal worms. The flocks were given a 
vermifuge, followed by a purgative, which had the desired effect, 
and in a couple of weeks' time the change in the flocks was sur- 
prising. They were eating more, took on weight and their egg 
yield improved. 

Widespread Trouble. — Numerous instances of anemia, liver 
trouble, indigestion, diarrhea, general physical debility and other 
complaints, due supposedly to lack of vigor in the breeding stock, 
have been traced to worms within the fowl's body. In fact, it 
has been said that of the strictly parasitic forms of life that 
affect poultry, worms play the leading role. I am not prepared 
to agree that worms are a greater menace to fowls than some 
other varmints of our acquaintance, such as mites and lice, but 
I do know that they work a great deal of loss and failure. 

Kinds of Worms. — There are several varieties of worms, some 
of which take up their abode in the crop, stomach and intestines, 

495 



496 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



not to mention the gape worm, which attaches itself to the wind- 
pipe and is made evident by frequent gaping, hence its name. 
Those that breed in the intestinal section are probably the most 
common and the most destructive. 

There is something revolting about the idea of worms exist- 
ing in the organs of a living creature; it is an unpleasant subject 




(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig. 307. — Feed hoppers and water fountains should be located on a raised 
platform to prevent litter from being scratched into them. 



to discuss. Nevertheless, since it is a foe, and a deadly one, we 
must take up arms against it, and to do so intelligently we must 
go into some detail. 

Tapeworms. — It has been found that there are two principal 
kinds of intestinal worms, round worms and ribbon-shaped 
worms, commonly called tapeworms. The commonplace that 
tapeworms actually consume food is all wrong; they do not. If 



WHAT TO GIVE FOR WORMS 497 

we examine them under a microscope, we find that they have no 
mouth or intestinal tract at all. They are a very low order of 
life, and attach themselves to the intestinal lining by means of 
a hook-like appendage. Free to come in contact with the digested 
nutrients in the intestines, they absorb these elements, much as 
the intestines themselves absorb this food. Obviously the fowl 
is robbed of so much nutriment, and in due time it becomes 
poor and emaciated, depending upon the extent of the worms. 

Under a strong glass we note that the worms consist of seg- 
ments, each of which is a complete organism, if you can call it 
such. It absorbs its own food, develops its own eggs, and later 
separates itself from the other segments and finally is passed out 
to the soil. In each segment there are hundreds of tiny eggs 
which are scattered on the ground, among food and in the drink- 
ing water, only to be picked up by other birds, which are then 
contaminated. It has been discovered that flies devour these 
eggs, and that the eggs are hatched within the fly; and, of course, 
chickens eat flies, therefore they take over the incipient worms 
as well. 

Numerous remedies are used to dislodge these parasites, and 
for best results they should be administered when the birds are 
fasting. The best way is to give the flock a. light feeding at 
night and the following morning give them the vermifuge. Sev- 
eral hours later they are given a purgative, such as Epsom salts 
or castor oil, and the treatment is complete. 

One of the most commonly recommended remedies and one 
of the easiest to administer is powdered pomegranate root bark. 
The dose is one teaspoonful for each fifty fowls given in a wet 
mash. Another good remedy is oil of wormseed (Jerusalem Oak). 
Mix a teaspoonful of the oil in a moist mash for every 12 fowls. 
In both treatments the purgative is given a few hours after the 
vermicide. 

For individual treatment oil of turpentine is excellent, which 

may be mixed with an equal quantity of olive oil, and 20 to 30 

drops of the mixture given at a dose. This is followed in a 

couple of hours with a tablespoonful of castor oil. Thymol is 

32 




498 



HOW TO DETECT WORMS 499 

also used, I grain to each fowl, or powdered areca nut, 30 to 45 
grains; powdered male fern, 30 to 60 grains; and kamala, 30 
to 40 grains for each fowl. 

Clean Premises. — At the same time the flock is being treated 
medically, the premises must be treated by powerful disinfec- 
tants to destroy the worms and their eggs, otherwise the 
birds will only become re-infested. Be careful to drain off any 
stagnant water, and fill in any marshy places. Sunlight is 
one of the greatest insecticides, and the cheapest, therefore 
the soil should be exposed to it by thorough plowing and har- 
rowing. 

Slaked lime is highly recommended, and in extreme cases it 
may be well to spray the ground with a solution of carbolic acid. 
Birds that have died from worms should always be incinerated, 
or buried in quicklime, never allowed to decay on the surface 
of the ground. 

The houses, especially the dropping boards and floors, should 
be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, also all feeding troughs, 
hoppers and drinking fountains. Bear in mind, there is little 
use in combating worms in anything but a thorough, practical 
manner. To do the task half is wasted energy, for only strenuous 
efforts will rid the premises of these pests. 

A heavy clay soil is much harder to rid of worms than a light, 
sandy loam. For that reason the latter soil is recommended for 
poultry. It is usually perfectly sanitary at all times. 

Manifestations of Worms. — Enterprising poultrymen realize 
the danger of worms and keep on the lookout for manifestations 
of them. If a bird should die from any cause whatever it is 
examined, not only for the immediate cause of death, but for 
indications of worms. The intestines, stomach and crop are 
opened and their contents noted. Birds that are killed for the 
home table are also examined. If one fowl is troubled with 
worms it is pretty safe to assume that the remainder of the flock 
is afflicted also, in which case treatment is begun at once. Birds 
that are dull and listless, with pale combs and shrunken wattles, 
are likely victims of worms. Post one of them and see what the 



500 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



trouble is. It is better to lose one bird, and thereby determine 
the evil, than to risk losing half a flock later on. 

Gape Worms. — Strictly speaking, gape worms do not come 
under the head of worms, as they are commonly understood, 
but under the term gapes, which is reckoned as a disease of 
chicks. Nevertheless, it is equally abominable, a kindred ill, 
hence its place in this chapter. 




{Courtesy Atlantic Farm) 

Fig. 309. — On commercial duck farms feeding is done almost exclusively by 
means of tramcars. 



Gape worms exist at all seasons, though they are seldom ob- 
served as troublesome until the hatching months, when they 
affect young birds. Chicks are most susceptible from 10 days 
to 6 weeks old, since at this age they are not large enough nor 
strong enough to dislodge the worms from their throats. Vigor- 
ous birds and older stock are attacked by the worms, but they 
usually succeed in getting rid of them without the keeper's aid. 



NATURE OF THE GAPE WORM 501 

The worm which causes gapes is in reality two worms — male 
and female, and they are so firmly grown together that they 
cannot be separated without tearing the tissues. The female 
worm is the principal member; it is about a half-inch long, while 
the male is little more than one-fifth of an inch. The heads 
of both are attached to the mucous lining of the windpipe or 
trachea, which causes such an irritation that undue secretions 
collect and make breathing difficult. Sometimes so many worms 
collect in the trachea, and grow to such size, for their eggs 
develop while they are in this state, that breathing becomes im- 
possible and the host, the afflicted chick, dies from suffocation. 

Chicks affected with gape worms will be seen to cough and 
sneeze with labored effort in a vain attempt to dislodge the 
pests, which is very difficult to accomplish. Soon they commence 
to gape, extending the neck and opening the beak, indicating 
that they are having great trouble in breathing. Later, as they 
become weakened by their struggles against the parasites, their 
appetites fail and they grow dull and listless, their wings droop 
and they stand with half-closed eyes and head drawn back into 
the body feathers. In this condition they are apt to die from 
suffocation, or be trampled by their fellows. 

In dealing with this complaint the poultryman should learn to 
rely more upon a preventative than a cure, because very young 
chicks are very difficult to treat individually and therefore ex- 
pensive. Good results have been obtained by extracting the 
worms with a feather, twisted horsehair, or one of the patented 
extractors. These devices are forced down the victim's throat, 
either dry or moistened with turpentine, then twisted about 
vigorously in an effort to dislodge the worms, and removed. 

Recently, good results have been reported from medicating 
drinking water, or by injecting 3 to 10 drops of a 5 per cent 
solution of salicylate of soda. The best method of prevention 
is to put the chicks on fresh ground, or soil that is known to be 
perfectly sanitary, and if any trouble is experienced, to treat 
the yards and premises with a strong disinfectant, the same as 
for other kinds of worms or parasites. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
WHITE DIARRHEA 

Terror and Plague. — No term, perhaps, strikes greater terror 
to the poultryman than white diarrhea. It is synonymous with 
such words as plague, scourge, epidemic and pestilence. That 
it has earned this opprobrium is attested by the fact that thou- 
sands of chicks are lost annually by this infection, and also be- 
cause of its resistance to any known treatment. It is success- 
fully combated, of course, but by preventative measures rather 
than curative ones. 

Exaggeration. — There is no gainsaying the malady exacts an 
enormous toll from the poultry raisers, yet I am inclined to think 
that much of the alarm is the result of sensational writers and 
highly imaginative persons, who find it more to the liking of 
their morbid minds to spread terrorism instead of optimism. 
Calamity is always more lurid than sublimity. These scares, 
like the alarm about cholera, small pox and infantile paralysis 
in the human species, are very much exaggerated and do more 
harm than good. 

Investigations. — It is natural that white diarrhea should have 
been the object of a great deal of investigation; chemists and 
bacteriologists have struggled with its mysteries for many years. 
While, perhaps, they have not been particularly successful thus 
far in establishing a positive cure for the disease, they have at 
least succeeded in isolating the germ, learned how to detect it, 
studied its development and propagation, and the conditions 
under which it thrives best, and devised satisfactory methods of 
preventing its spread. 

Causes. — We are told that white diarrhea is caused by at 
least four different kinds of infection, the most common of which 
is a bacillus called bacterium pidlorum, which means in ordinary 

502 



KINDS OF WHITE DIARRHEA 



503 



terms, the bacteria or germs of the pullets. Coccidiosis and 
aspergillus fungus are two other forms of the disease, but so far 
as we are concerned these technical phrases are merely names, 
difficult to pronounce, harder to remember, and of no value to 
the unsophisticated mind. 

All of these microbes infect the adult fowls and are generally 
communicated from them to the chicks directly or indirectly. 




Fig. 310. — Ideal location for ducks and geese. 



It is not necessary for the affected hen to have any external ap- 
pearance of having white diarrhea or a diarrhea of any kind. In 
fact, the affected bird may be in the pink of condition, a good 
layer and a fine-looking fowl. By analyzing the eggs laid from 
an infected hen, we may find white diarrhea germs in very active 
form, or none at all. Apparently, some eggs are inoculated 
while others escape, though there is no method of determining 
this from external appearances 



504 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Symptoms. — In chicks the symptoms of white diarrhea are 
virtually unmistakable, the most prominent one being a more or 
less profuse diarrhea, the droppings consisting almost entirely 
of mucus from the intestinal tube and the white secretion of the 
kidneys. The white substance predominates, hence the name 
white diarrhea. It is caused by an irritation of the intestines, 
fever, and a rapid breaking down of the tissues of the kidneys. 

Hens infected with this malady produce chicks which have the 
germs of the disease within them when they are hatched, and 
these chicks usually show manifestations of the trouble within 
the first few days of their life. From the experiments conducted 
it appears as though chicks are most susceptible to infection dur- 
ing the first twenty-four hours, and that after the fourth or fifth 
day they are practically immune. 

Chicks which sicken of the disease later must have taken the 
microbes into their systems at an early age, which for some 
reason remained dormant for a time. Adult fowls are practically 
resistant to the germs, and do not show any symptoms though 
they may be inoculated with the disease and lay infected eggs. 
Thus incubators and brooders, as well as coops, become infected 
with the disease and preserve the contagion indefinitely, unless 
scrupulous measures are taken to destroy it. The ground is also 
impregnated with the contagion, and should be plowed under 
and sowed to plant life. 

Pasting Up. — A large brood of chicks may be hatched from 
eggs subject to the germs of white diarrhea, and to all appear- 
ances they are hail and hearty when taken from the machine. 
But they soon commence to wilt. The first indication of some- 
thing wrong is a disposition to huddle together and remain under 
the hover or under the hen, as the case might be. Apparently 
they suffer from chills. They are listless, stupid and sleepy, and 
take no interest in food or their environment. They stand still, 
heads drawn in, eyes closed, and chirp and peep almost con- 
stantly. Their wings droop or project slightly from the body, 
instead of being folded tightly against it, and the characteristic 
diarrhea soon appears. Usually the excreta is mucilaginous, 



HEAVY MORTALITY 



505 



adhering to the downy feathers about the vent, where it dries 
and cakes and continues to accumulate until it completely 
covers the opening and causes a stoppage. Unless relieved, this 
condition, known as pasting up, will bring about an early death. 
The mass should be removed as gently as possible, and the 
affected parts treated with vaseline or soothing ointment. 

Spread of Contagion. — There is added mischief in these masses 
of excreta due to the chicks picking at them and thereby con- 




(Courtesy Purdtie Experiment Station) 

Fig. 311. — Artificial pond constructed of concrete. Ducks can be raised 
without a swimming hole, though best results are secured with one. The eggs 
are likely to run more fertile. 

tracting the disease. In this manner the germs are spread through 
an entire flock, unless the caretaker adopts prompt means of 
isolating the affected members. 

Chronic Type. — Sometimes the disease is less severe, but of a 
more chronic type, and takes longer to run its course. The 
chicks thus afflicted waste away and gradually become weaker 
and more emaciated, until their legs are unable to support their 
bodies. They lean against walls or other objects for support, 



506 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



or squat down with outstretched wings until they die. As death 
approaches the breathing becomes labored, and at intervals the 
poor little creatures give utterance to a faint shrill cry, indi- 
cating that they are seized with paroxysms of intense pain. 
Most of these victims have the peculiar form of body described 
as short back, which results from the distension of the abdomen. 
The most disastrous phase of this complaint is the heavy 
mortality. The losses vary from 50 to 80 per cent of the chicks 




{Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 

Fig. 312. — Well-proportioned poultry house. Front wall is of novelty 
siding, ends and rear wall are made of matched lumber covered with patent 
roofing, as is the roof. Note position of doors, curtain frames, windows and 
ventilator. 



affected, and often it is impossible to raise any of them. Further- 
more, it is questionable if it is advisable to try and raise any of 
them, in view of the probability that they may later become what 
is termed bacillus carriers. Because those that do not succumb 
still carry the germs in their bodies, lodged in the ova — the un- 
developed eggs, which are ultimately laid, perhaps, and thus 
transmit the disease from one generation to the next. 



VALUE OF SOUR MILK 



507 



No Absolute Cure. — For bacillary white diarrhea in young 
chicks there is no absolute cure so far as is known. Several 
so-called remedies have been extensively advertised, but most of 
these are in reality preventatives. Furthermore, the medical 
treatment of individual chicks is virtually impracticable, as it 
is too expensive, and flock treatment, once the chicks are afflicted, 




I 

m 



51 tj Sr"^.Lvc? r^-^i 




Fig- 3!3- — White Pekin ducklings. 



(Courtesy Atlantic Farm) 



is of little consequence because the chicks cannot be induced to 
eat or drink in sufficient quantity to be of any avail. 

The feeding of sour milk to young chicks as soon as they 
are taken from the incubator appears to be the most successful 
treatment toward controlling the disease. The purpose of the 
sour milk is to suppress any intestinal putrefaction which the 
bacillus may set up. In other words, the sour milk contains 
ferments or bacteria, which are calculated to counteract or offset 
the parasites of the white diarrhea. 



508 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Lacking the sour milk, it has been found that 15 grains of 
powdered catechu dissolved in a gallon of drinking water tends 
to prevent the development of the diarrhea. This treatment 
should be continued for about ten days, or until the danger 
period is past. 

Preventative measures should begin, of course, with the eggs 
used for hatching. In the first place, no eggs should be used 
which are known to be laid by hens afflicted with white diarrhea 
or any other communicable disease at any time. If the eggs are 
purchased the buyer should insist upon some assurance as to the 
health of the parent stock, and if possible he should visit the 
farm and inspect the flock. 

Before the eggs are set under hens or placed in the incubator 
they should be disinfected, which is easily accomplished by sev- 
eral methods. Wipe the shells with a soft cloth saturated with 
grain alcohol of 70 to 80 per cent strength. Or the eggs may be 
dipped in a weak solution of creolin and water. Both methods 
have been used effectively, and neither treatment has had any 
serious influence on the hatchability of the eggs. 

If the hatching is done in an incubator it goes without saying 
that the interior of the machine, especially the egg trays and 
nursery drawers, should be carefully disinfected after each hatch. 
The same precautions should be adopted in regard to the brooder 
and any other coop or device that is used by the chicks. If the 
hatching is done by hens the broods should be put upon fresh 
ground, and frequently moved to fresh ground, so that if any 
cases develop the risk of contagion will be reduced to a minimum. 
It may be asserted positively that, though there is no positive 
cure for the disease, it may be eliminated, and if reasonable 
sanitary measures are practised as a part of the routine work, 
there is little reason to fear the ravages of white diarrhea. 

Agglutination Test. — It is possible to detect the presence of 
white diarrhea in grown fowls by a blood test, called the aggluti- 
nation test, but owing to the delicate nature of the work it 
must be performed in a laboratory. Some of the Experiment 
Stations will perform this work for a nominal charge. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
PARASITES AND PESTS 

Fowls are Subject to Vermin. — In every enterprise there are 
certain realities and circumstances which may be classified as 
grim realities. To combat them seems to be a part of the philos- 
ophy of life. Therefore, to attempt a task without due allowance 
for this struggle is in the nature of folly, since it is quite likely to 
result in bitter disappointment, maybe failure. 

Farming is no exception to the above. In fact, it is probably 
the most graphic example of a struggle against adverse circum- 
stances. There is scarcely a tree, shrub, vine or plant that is 
without its natural enemy. For almost every stalk that sprouts 
there is some other form of life eager to feast upon it. Horti- 
culture is a constant battle against blight, worms, beetles, weevils, 
moths, grubs and countless other insects. Successful animal hus- 
bandry necessitates a corresponding struggle against similar 
pests, for as such we have come to know these lower forms of 
life. And not the least of these are the parasites affecting poultry. 

No matter how much we would like to think of our fowls as 
being nice and clean and free from anything so objectionable in 
name and nature as lice and mites, just as certain as dogs are 
likely to be bothered with fleas, and cattle and sheep are sus- 
ceptible to ticks, poultry, especially chickens, are prone to become 
infested with vermin. It seems to be a part of the general scheme 
of things. 

Be on the Lookout. — On the well-organized, progressive farm, 
where poultry is made a specialty, there is less trouble resulting 
from the ravages of vermin than on the general farm or back- 
yard, where small flocks of fowls are kept principally as a side 
line. There are several reasons to account for this condition. 

509 



510 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



In the first place, the operator of large numbers of fowls, having 
considerable capital invested in his plant, is more likely to have 
a keener appreciation of the needs and requirements of his stock. 

Usually he makes a 
thorough study of the 
conditions affecting his 
birds, for he knows only 
too well if he is an experi- 
enced poultry man, that 
the conditions which 
affect his flocks adversely 
or beneficially are almost 
immediately reflected in 
his bank account. 

Owners of small flocks 
are sometimes indiffer- 
ent to improved meth- 
ods, for no reason except 
they do not take the work 
seriously. Then, again, 
on large farms where the 
hatching is done in incu- 
bators and the chicks 
are brooded artificially, 
never coming in contact 
with hens, it is very much 
easier to keep vermin 
in check on the young 
stock. They are not so 
apt to become infested 
until they are fairly well 
grown, and not even 
then, unless the buildings are seriously over-run with vermin. This 
is quite a factor, indeed, because vermin is particularly fatal to 
young chicks, and is responsible for all kinds of trouble. 

Realizing the importance of safeguarding his flocks against 




(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 314. — Painting the perches with crude oil 
or disinfectant to exterminate mites. 



KINDS OF VERMIN 



511 



parasites, the owner of a well-organized poultry plant makes it 
his business to establish a regular sanitary schedule — a system 
of spraying and disinfecting, also whitewashing, which he adheres 
to quite as rigorously as feeding and watering. Not so frequently, 
of course, but just as systematically. 

The point is — that it is equally important for the keeper of a 
small flock to exercise propor- 
tionate care. Because the 
flock is small, or because it is 
kept merely as a side line is 
no excuse for exemption, and 
no guarantee that the birds 
will not be troubled. How- 
ever unpleasant the idea may 
be, you must make up your 
mind to the fact that wher- 
ever you keep fowls you are 
going to have vermin, unless 
you fight these pests, and 
fight them strenuously and 
continuously. There is an 
affinity between fowls and 
vermin. They must be fought 
the same as the farmer fights 
potato-bugs and cut-worms. 

Kinds of Parasites. — The 
parasites that attack poultry 
are of two kinds, commonly 
known as lice and mites. 
There are several varieties of 

the former, but since they have the same general characteris- 
tics and are combated in the same way, we need not concern 
ourselves with a study of individual species. They live mainly 
on the secretions of the body, feathers and skin, and inhabit 
the fowls day and night. They are found largely on the head 
and neck, under the wings and about the vent. When allowed 




{Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 

Fig. 315. — Dusting a fowl with insect 
powder. 



512 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

to multiply in great numbers, as they are prone to do, they will 
sometimes become so thick as to cause death. Sitting hens are 
especially annoyed by them. 

The female lice deposit their eggs on the feathers of the fowls, 
cementing them to the quills near the skin. In a few days these 
eggs hatch, in a short time they breed, also, propagating more and 
more, so that it is possible for thousands to be multiplied in a 
couple of months. In warm weather conditions are particularly 
favorable for their reproduction, consequently with the approach 
of spring and throughout the summer months extra care must be 
taken to destroy them. 

Mites. — If anything mites are more troublesome than lice. 
They abound in larger numbers, and aside from tormenting the 
fowls, they actually subsist on the blood of the birds. They are not 
usually found on the bodies of the fowls except when on the roost 
or in the nest. During the day mites inhabit cracks and crevices 
of the walls, roosts and other fittings. Many houses, unsuspected, 
actually swarm with them. When these pests have accumulated 
in such hordes that they are unable to get enough blood from 
the fowls during the night, they are found to remain on the birds 
during the day. 

Potent Enemy. — Though infinitesimal in size and, therefore, 
almost insignificant individually, collectively mites represent an 
enemy with the potentiality of a fair-sized animal. A host of 
blood -sucking mites is capable of absorbing more blood, more 
vitality over night than the fowl can replace by the assimilation 
of large quantities of food during the day. In addition to this 
actual loss of blood, which is a terrific drain on the fowl's strength, 
the bird must endure the torment of being constantly pierced 
and chewed by these pests. Sitting hens are often so tormented 
that they are compelled to leave their nests in order to relieve 
themselves. 

The mouth of the louse is formed for biting and chewing, and 
since they have a fondness for moisture, they can be poisoned by 
spreading a mercurial ointment where they are seen to congre- 
gate on the fowls. This treatment should be used on mature 



FORMULAS FOR DUSTING POWDERS 



513 



fowls only, since the mercury is likely to prove dangerous to 
chicks. 

Lice breathe through spiracles or pores in their sides, hence 
they can be suffocated by stopping up these breathing tubes 
with a fine powder. The instinct for a hen to take a dust bath 
is nature's way to kill these pests. The most effective powder 
for this purpose is that which contains a drying and burning 
ingredient, or one giving off fumes. 




(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 

Fig. 316. — Spraying the roosting compartments with an insecticide is part of 
the sanitary schedule on a well-regulated poultry farm. 



A reliable home made powder can be mixed as follows: Add 
an ounce of 90 per cent carbolic acid to a peck of sifted coal 
ashes, mix thoroughly, and then add an equal quantity of tobacco 
stem dust. 

Here is another recipe which has given satisfaction at the 
Maine and Cornell Experiment Stations for a number of years: 
Add one part crude carbolic acid to three parts gasoline, mix 
these together carefully, and while stirring add enough plaster-of- 
Paris to take up the moisture. When enough plaster has been 

33 



514 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

added, the resulting mixture should be a dry pinkish — brown 
powder, having a fairly strong odor of carbolic acid. 

The dusting powder should be worked into the plumage of the 
fowl, the greater part of the application being in the fluff feath- 
ers, near the vent and under the wings. See Fig. 315. Its effect 
is noticeable almost immediately. The dusting should be re- 
peated in about two weeks to catch the new brood of lice, which 
are in the form of eggs at the first dusting, and are not disturbed 
by it to any extent. Fumigation and spraying with a good dis- 
infectant will destroy lice about the roosting compartments and 
cracks of the house. Once the hens are fairly rid of lice, it is no 
trouble to keep these parasites under control by a systematic 
spraying. See Fig. 316. 

Destroying Mites. — Unlike lice, the young of the mites are 
not hatched on the fowls, but in the hiding places where the 
mites live. Consequently, to destroy mites the poultryman 
should confine his attack to their breeding places in the structure 
of the building, and not on the fowls. 

Spraying or painting the perches, nests, drop boards, and all 
other interior fixtures, including the ceiling and walls, with a 
solution of crude oil or other powerful disinfectant, is the surest 
way to rid a house of mites. See Fig. 314. Enough of the liquid 
should be used to thoroughly saturate the surface of the wood, 
and to run freely into all cracks and openings. Frequently a 
poultry house is so dusty that unless large quantities of the spray 
are used, the dust will absorb the greater part of the liquid. To 
overcome this, it is well to first give the building a good brush- 
ing down with a stiff broom, and then follow with the spraying. 

It is a mistake to think that because a house is idle for some 
time it will rid itself of mites, believing that the mites will starve 
where there are no fowls to feed upon. They will live for months 
without food, if necessary an entire winter, only to reappear as 
soon as a flock of chickens is placed in the house. 

Whitewashing. — In the minds of many, whitewashing means 
slaking some lime in water and splashing this solution rather 
carelessly over a prescribed surface. The result is all too familiar 



WHITEWASHING AND SPRAYING 



515 



— whitewash so badly streaked as to be most unsightly, and at 
the slightest touch brushing off the woodwork. In fact, fre- 
quently it does not remain long enough to be of any real value. 
To execute a good, permanent job — a job that will not only 
clean and disinfect the building, but improve its appearance as 
well — one must regard the task much the same as painting. First 
of all, the walls, sills, and all projections that have accumulated 
large quantities of dust should be carefully brushed clean with 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 317. — Spraying outfit for disinfecting and whitewashing. 



a stiff broom; otherwise the whitewash will simply form a coat- 
ing or deposit over the dust and will subsequently curl up and 
fall off, thus exposing the original dift. Moreover, this dust is 
frequently the refuge and abiding place for disease germs and 
vermin and should be removed, not merely put out of sight 
temporarily. Whitewash is a good exterminator if allowed to 
come in contact with vermin, and will penetrate cracks and cre- 
vices which are in a horizontal position, such' as those on dropping 



516 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

boards, in a thorough manner; but if sprayed on the dusty sides 
of a building, it is very apt to run off the dust like water from an 
oiled surface. 

Spraying is much easier and quicker than applying the white- 
wash with a brush, and if the above cleaning precautions are 
taken, it is equally as effectual. But if one insists on following 
the careless method, by all means use a brush, and put some car- 
bolic acid in the wash — for in so doing the woodwork is at least 
partially scrubbed with the solution. 

Formulas. — The following are formulas for whitewash that 
will not rub off: Slake a half-bushel of good strong lime in boil- 
ing water, using just enough water to cover the lime and keep it 
from burning. When the slaking process is completed, add a 
little more water, and then strain the solution to remove any 
sediment of sand or foreign substance. Dissolve a peck of salt in 
warm water and add this to the lime solution ; mix it thoroughly 
and allow it to stand for a couple of days. When ready for use, 
thin to the proper consistency and apply it hot. 

Mixing Wash with Skimmed Milk. — Another well-known 
recipe: Slake the lime as before, and then add two pounds of 
sulphate of zinc and one pound of salt dissolved in water. The 
addition of a half-pound of whiting will improve the wash for 
outside use, and if skimmed milk is used instead of water, the 
results will compare favorably with oil paint. 

Disinfectant. — The following is an inexpensive and efficient 
poultry house disinfectant for spraying purposes, and one that 
is very simple to make at home: Dissolve a pound of strong, 
hard soap or soap powder in a gallon of boiling water; imme- 
diately this is removed from the fire add a gallon of kerosene 
and one pint of crude carbolic acid, and churn and agitate the 
solution until the ingredients are thoroughly mixed. If the oil 
and water separate, it is because the soap was not' sufficiently 
caustic. It is important that crude carbolic acid be used and 
not the refined product, for the crude acid — a dark brown, 
dirty-looking liquid — contains tar oil, which is to be desired. 
Add ten gallons of water to the above to make a stock solution, 



PROVISIONS FOR DUST BATH 



517 



and when ready for use, mix this stock solution with an equal 
quantity of water. It is then in condition for spraying. 




(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 318. — Interior of pigeon house showing feed hopper, roosts, nest boxes 
and different kinds of nest pans. 

Coal ashes are an asset rather than a nuisance on the poultry 
farm, and may be used to splendid advantage. They are an 



518 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

excellent absorbent, and when sprinkled under the perches and 
mixed with the droppings, the volatile properties of the hen 
manure are carefully preserved. They differ from wood ashes in 
this respect, for wood ashes, though a good insecticide, contain 
considerable lime, which liberates the ammonia in the droppings 
and thus destroys much of their fertilizing value. 

Finely screened coal ashes make the most effective sort of a 
dust bath for the hens. The fine dust penetrates the fowl's 
feathers, and coming in contact with lice serves to stop the 
breathing passages of these parasites, causing them to suffocate 
and die. Wood ashes are even better for this purpose, because 
the particles of dust are finer, but here again the lime is objec- 
tionable, since it tends to take the gloss off the plumage. 

Coal ashes should be used freely on the floors of poultry build- 
ings, for they penetrate cracks and crevices and assist in destroy- 
ing mites and other vermin, dissipate noxious odors, and improve 
conditions generally. Still another advantage — large quantities 
of the cinders will be eaten by the birds as grit, and will contri- 
bute some of the mineral nutrients. 

Road Dust. — Dust removed from a road during dry weather, 
and which is only an annoyance to travelers, will be found bene- 
ficial in the dust boxes also. Every poultry farm should have a 
supply on hand for winter use, for unless dirt floors are used, 
these artificial means of supplying the fowl's toilet requisites 
must be provided. A dust bath is quite as essential to the well 
being of poultry as is the soap-and-water variety to the human. 



CHAPTER XL 
DUCKS 

Popularity of Duck Meat. — Time was when the duck was not 
considered sufficiently profitable to warrant the trouble in rais- 
ing it. Its flesh was never keenly sought after by the masses, 
consequently it returned low prices and farmers generally de- 
clined to show any enthusiasm. In those days, however, ducks 
were raised without constraint in waterways and made to forage 
for their living, subsisting almost entirely upon fish and other 
water foods, which naturally imparted a strong fishy flavor to 
their flesh and made them undesired except by the few who 
might be partial to that kind of diet. 

In the last twenty years breeders have awakened to the neces- 
sity for improving the flavor of the flesh by feeding grain almost 
exclusively, whereupon their efforts have been rewarded by a 
steadily increasing demand, until to-day duck raising has devel- 
oped into a flourishing industry, and on some of the well-known 
plants, especially those on Long Island, a single farm will market 
100,000 ducks a year. 

Standard Varieties. — There are numerous standard varieties 
of ducks, among which are the following: Pekin, Muscovy, 
Indian Runner, Aylesbury (see Fig. 322), Rouen (see Fig. 323), 
Cayuga, Call and Swedish. Of these the Pekin, Muscovy and 
Indian Runner are the most widely bred, and probably the best 
suited to farm purposes. 

Pekins. — None stands higher in popular esteem than the White 
Pekin, which was imported from China in the early seventies. 
See Fig. 319. It is valuable for raising on a large scale, and while 
naturally a very timid bird, it may be raised more easily, perhaps, 
than any other. It has a distinct type of its own, and differs 

519 



520 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



from all others in the shape and carriage of its body. They are 
large birds, sometimes attaining twenty pounds to the pair; 
yet their flesh, if properly nourished, is delicate and free from 
any taint, and they are considered among the best of table fowls. 
They mature early, are excellent layers, non-sitters, and require 
no particular skill in breeding. 

Shape of Pekins. — The standard-bred Pekin has a long, finely 
formed head, neatly curved neck, and a bill of orange yellow, 




Fig. 319. — Pekin ducks. 



medium-sized, with no trace of any other color. The eyes are 
of a deep, leaden-blue color. The back is long and broad, the 
keel proportionately long and deep, the breast round, full and 
very prominent, and the carriage of the body elevated in front, 
sloping downward toward the rear. The wings are short, folded 
closely against the body, and are not capable of sustaining 
flight; hence a two-foot fence is sufficient to restrain the Pekin. 
The plumage is downy and of a faint creamy tint throughout, 
though recently there is a preference for an absolute white. The 



MUSCOVY DUCKS 



521 



standard weight of the drake is 8 pounds, and of the duck 7 
pounds. 

Muscovy ducks, of which there are two varieties — White and 
Colored, the plumage of the latter being black and white — have 
several distinct peculiarities. See Fig. 320. They are sometimes 
called the Musk duck, owing to the odor of musk which pervades 
the skin, but which is not objectionable when the fowl is cooked. 
Also, their appearance is rather grotesque by reason of the long, 
crest-like feathers on the head, the sides of which and the face are 




Fig. 320. — White Muscovy ducks. 



covered with scarlet caruncles. This large, red face gives them 
a savage look, and to some minds it makes them quite hideous. 

They are found in a wild state in the warmer regions of South 
America, but in Brazil they have been extensively domesticated 
and are highly prized for eating. They find great favor in Europe 
as well, especially in Germany, where they are raised in large 
numbers. They are the largest of all ducks, the standard weight 
of the drake being 10 pounds and. of the duck 8 pounds. 



522 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



The Muscovy is notorious for its pugnacious, quarrelsome 
nature, and for this reason it is frequently inadvisable to keep 
them on the farm with other poultry. The temper of the drake 
is violent, indeed; he will fight with another drake, inflicting 
serious harm, if possible; and his persecution of other poultry is 
unceasing and abominable. 

Unlike Pekins, the Muscovy is a strong flier, and when fright- 




Fig. 321. — Indian runner ducks. 



ened, they will fly into trees or into high places of concealment 
where they remain for long periods of time. When bred, they 
must be kept in yards by themselves, care being taken to clip 
their wings to keep them from flying. The flesh of the Muscovy 
compares favorably with that of any other duck, if eaten young, 
but they cannot be credited with laying so many eggs as some 
of the other breeds. 



LEGHORN OF THE DUCK FAMILY 523 

The Indian Runner duck, which is said to have its origin in 
India — hence the forepart of its name — has rapidly come into 
wide popularity by reason of its prolific egg yield, and by reason 
of which it is aptly termed the Leghorn of the duck family. See 
Fig. 321. The name Runner is appropriate, for they literally 
run, instead of waddle, as do other ducks, and sometimes present 
a very comical appearance. 

Runner ducks are exceedingly active in their habits, and by 
reason of their willingness to forage are able to find a large part 
of their food. Though easily domesticated, they do not stand 
confinement well; they are non-sitters, are hardy and easy to 
raise, and while their flesh is of prime quality, their size is rather 
against them for market purposes, except as broilers. The stan- 
dard weight of the drake is 4^2 pounds and of the duck 4 pounds. 

The body of the Runner somewhat resembles the shape of the 
Penguin ; it is long, narrow and carried very erect, with little or 
no indication of keel. They are very good-looking, the plumage 
being light fawn or gray and white, which blends admirably 
with the orange-red of their shanks and the green of their bills. 
In the past five years White Indian Runners have become very 
popular, and are probably destined to be more extensively bred 
than the Fawn variety. 

Water is not Necessary.— We naturally associate ducks with 
w r ater — but as a matter of fact it is not at all necessary that 
they have access to it, except such as is given them for drinking 
purposes. If a pond or stream is available, it is well to allow the 
breeders the freedom of it, also the young ducks until they are 
about eight weeks old, when they should be penned and fattened 
for market. On the other hand, equally good results are being 
obtained by poultrymen who have no water on their premises; 
the only noticeable difference between these ducks and those 
having access to water is that the water ducks have somewhat 
prettier and cleaner plumage. 

Duck raising is to be recommended for those who wish to 
make use of marshy land not suitable for chickens; yet this fact 
must not deceive one in the belief that damp, wet quarters are 



524 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



available for ducks. Houses for ducks are simple affairs, but 
they must be free from dampness and located so as to be assured 
of good drainage — preferably on sandy soil. The feathers of a 
duck are almost impenetrable to cold, but its feet are rather sus- 
ceptible, much as a hen's comb and wattles. The duck likes to 
warm its feet, and to this end it is advisable to have a dry dirt 
floor in the duck house, covered with straw, hay, shavings or 




Fig. 322. — Aylesbury ducks. 



other litter. Some breeders advocate a board floor, but this is 
scarcely necessary unless it is impossible to maintain a com- 
paratively dry earth floor. 

The beginner should start modestly and develop his plant 
only as his experience increases and his capital warrants; for 
duck raising is an arduous task and requires an absolute knowl- 
edge of the business before success can be reached. Every phase 
of the work should be carefully studied with the idea of minimiz- 



REQUIREMENTS TO BE SOUGHT 



525 



ing labor, and each department — the incubator cellar, brooder 
house, breeding pens, fattening pens, picking room and feed 
house — located where they are the most convenient and the 
most accessible. The task of feeding and watering ducks alone 
is no small one, and on large plants this factor receives very 
careful consideration. Artificial incubation and brooding, com- 







Fig. 323. — Rouen ducks. 



bined with improved machinery for handling and mixing the 
feeds, are largely responsible for the growth of the duck industry. 
Inspire Confidence. — One of the essentials in breeding ducks is 
a quiet, even-tempered caretaker — the man or woman who will 
inspire confidence in the flocks and become, in a sense, a com- 
panion to them. Ducks are high-strung, excitable birds, skep- 
tical toward strangers, and yet responsive to good treatment and 
regular attention. Furthermore, they are confirmed creatures 
of habit, and any serious change in their diet or management is 



526 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

likely to disturb their appetite and egg yield. For example, 
mature stock that has never been fed on corn will not eat it 
at first, and may never really learn to relish it, whereas if they 
are brought up on a part corn diet it is one of their best-liked 
grains. 

Feeding and Watering. — Under natural conditions, the food of 
the duck is both animal and vegetable, consisting of fish, water 
insects, grasses and so forth, therefore when the birds are raised 
under a somewhat artificial environment this diet must be imi- 
tated to secure the most satisfactory results. Unlike the hen, 




Fig. 324. — Ducks are heavy drinkers. 

the duck has no crop, the food passing from the bill to the giz- 
zard; in consequence the food must be largely of a soft char- 
acter. Too much hard food does not agree with these birds — 
they will not thrive upon it, hence it is. inadvisable. 

While a proper selection of the food is highly important to 
secure rapid growth, the necessary ingredients are the simplest 
grains, usually wheat middlings, wheat bran, corn meal and low 
grade flour, to which should be added beef scraps and, where 
necessary, shredded alfalfa or other green food. The following 
is an excellent ration for breeders, whose food should not, of 



FOOD AND DRINK 527 

course, be so forcing as that intended for the market birds: 
Equal parts corn meal, wheat bran, green food; 5 per cent beef 
scraps, and 5 per cent coarse sand or grit. Mix with water to 
a moistened, crumbly state — not sloppy — and feed three times a 
day, the last feed to be given an hour before sundown. 

Grit is as essential to ducks as it is to chickens, and should 
be kept before the birds at all times, in addition to being fed in 
the mash. The sand used in the mash supplies a certain amount 
of the necessary grinding material, and the duck will pick up 
more on range ; yet this is not sufficient to fully satisfy the diges- 
tive demands. A supply of oyster shells should also be kept in 
a convenient place. 

Heavy Drinkers. — As previously stated, water for bathing is 
not necessary for growing ducks, but it is most important that 
they have access to a liberal supply of fresh drinking water at 
all times. Ducks are heavy drinkers, and it has been said that 
the only neglect which will kill young ducks is failure to provide 
them with sufficient water, in a vessel deep enough for them to 
get their heads beneath the surface. Ducklings like to immerse 
their eyes — a habit which seems to be essential to their well- 
being. Obviously, the water should be kept as fresh as possible. 



CHAPTER XLI 
GEESE 

Virtues of Geese. — It is pretty safe to say that we Americans 
do not raise enough geese, and do not fully appreciate their 
possibilities. Like the guinea, the goose is not taken seriously 
enough by the average farmer ; yet there is no kind of livestock 
that can be fed with so little loss, and so little attention, and 
that requires such inexpensive equipment, as the goose. They 
are heir to very little sickness; in fact, a gosling one week old 
is virtually a grown bird, requiring little else but a stretch of 
pasture over which to roam and forage for itself. 

Need of Grazing Land. — That goose raising is not practised 
so extensively as duck growing is probably due to the fact that 
geese require an abundance of grazing land, and will thrive best 
where there is a certain amount of water. They are the most 
persistent grazers of any kind of poultry, and though they prefer 
meadowland rich in plant life, which will sustain them in prime 
condition, they are, nevertheless, capable of adapting themselves 
to poor, waste land on which, perhaps, no other form of live- 
stock could be supported. For this reason alone they should be 
considered by farmers, especially those who have tidewater 
farms, or low land bordering on rivers or ponds. A day's ride 
through the Eastern Shore section of Maryland will convince 
the most skeptical that there must be profit in geese, for nearly 
every farm will be seen to have its flock. Many times, when 
other crops have proved disastrous, the returns from the geese 
have been the mainstay of these farmers. 

There are seven standard varieties of geese: Gray Toulouse, 
White Emden, Gray African, Brown Chinese, White Chinese, 
Wild or Canadian, and Colored Egyptian. Of these, the first 

528 



MOST COMMON VARIETIES 



529 



two breeds are the most widely bred in this country, and are 
to be recommended for the average farm. 

Toulouse geese (see Fig. 325) are named for a district in 
France where they are extensively bred. They are fairly good 
layers, and are well thought of as market birds, though their 
flesh is somewhat coarser and not so white as some of the other 
varieties. Their plumage being a dull gray in parts, merging 




v.y; 



Fig. 325. — Toulouse geese. 



into a lighter gray and then white on the underbody, they are 
not so valuable for their feathers as the pure white breeds. 

The Emden geese (see Fig. 326) are probably the most desir- 
able for all round purposes. They are rapid growers, good for- 
agers, and are more suitable for the early markets. They orig- 
inally came from Emden, hence their name, but they have been 
bred in this- country for many years. Although not so prolific as 
the Toulouse and other breeds, they have other qualities which 
commend them as the most profitable, or at least the most 
34 



530 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



desirable. Their flesh is finer, whiter and of a better flavor ; they 
have a wealth of pure white plumage which has a higher market- 
able value, and in disposition they are less pugnacious, more 
placid and more contented than the other breeds. In point of 
weight they are about the same as the Toulouse, according to 
the Standard, though as a general thing the Emden is bred 
somewhat smaller than the Toulouse. 

Gray African geese are considered by many to be the most 



/■A. ".. ;■■■':■' 







Fig. 326. — Emden geese. 



profitable, because of their great gain in weight in the least pos- 
sible time. They are also very prolific, and many breeders cross 
them with the Emden for this purpose. According to the Stan- 
dard they are the same weight as the Toulouse and Emden geese, 
yet they generally exceed the weights of these two. They have 
rather long necks, and their heads are conspicuous for the knobs 
which protrude from the base of the bill, the same as in the 
Chinese varieties. They also have a heavy dewlap under the 



CHINESE GEESE 



531 



throat, which is of a gray color. The knob of the African goose 
is black, and in the White Chinese it is orange colored. 

The Chinese geese (see Fig. 327), of which there are two 
varieties, Brown and White, have never become extensively 
bred in this country, probably because of their small size. What 
they lack in size, however, they endeavor to make up in egg 
production, for they are the most prolific of all breeds of geese, 
averaging about sixty eggs a year. Their flesh has a superior 







Fig. 327. — White China geese. 



flavor and texture, and they are easy to fatten and manage. 
The standard weight of the adult gander is 12 pounds, and the 
adult goose 10 pounds, as against 20 pounds and 18 pounds for 
the other three varieties. 

Gray wild geese, or Canadian geese, as they are also called, 
are about the same weight as the Chinese. Recently they seem 
to have come to the fore, and are prized very highly for table 
purposes. They are frequently crossed with African ganders, 



532 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

which has increased their weight as goslings. They are very- 
hardy and easy to rear. The head and bill are black; neck 
black, shading to a light gray on the chest, and to a dark gray 
on the back. The plumage of the underparts of the body is 
white. 

Colored Egyptian geese, sometimes called Nile geese, are the 
smallest of the goose family, also the most beautiful. The 
standard weight is 10 pounds for the adult gander and 8 pounds 
for the goose. They are not to be recommended for general 
farm use, and are bred almost exclusively for ornamental pur- 
poses. They are of a very quarrelsome nature, especially the 
males, who will frequently fight among themselves until dead. 

Houses of the most simple construction are used for shelters 
for geese, little more than sheds, in fact, having nothing but a 
supply of straw or other material for litter on the floors. These 
may be of dirt or concrete; the latter is best to conserve the 
manure, which is in large quantities and a very valuable by- 
product. If ground phosphate rock is sprinkled over the manure 
at regular intervals, and fresh litter is added as required to 
keep the houses in a sanitary condition, there will be a surprising 
amount of the finest kind of fertilizer produced by even a mod- 
erate sized flock. 

Fields that are worthless for cultivation may be turned into 
goose pastures, and those which have streams or unused springs 
are especially suitable. Unless too many birds are turned into a 
small area, which is then likely to become depleted of its plant 
life, the geese will gather the largest portion of their food, con- 
sisting of grasses, insects, and other animal and vegetable life. 
Or they may be made to work in the stubble of the grain fields, 
in place of hogs, for it is a simple matter to drive geese to dis- 
tant pasture and home again at night. 

Geese are much maligned, in that they are accused of destroy- 
ing pasture for cattle and horses, which is true only if they are 
kept in large numbers in a comparatively small area. The same 
is true of sheep or almost any other form of livestock. Where 
there is a sufficiency of grass and other plant life, they may be 



MATING AND SETTING 533 

left to graze in the same pasture with cattle and horses. Many 
poor pieces of land have been converted into good pasture lots 
by being stocked with geese for a few years. 

They require drinking water in abundance, consequently, 
unless they have access to large bodies of water in which to 
swim, their drinking water should be supplied in fountains in 
which they can only get their bills to drink. Otherwise they 
will contaminate the water. 

Although the goose is aquatic, and it must be admitted they 
seem to do better when given access to a body of water, especially 
in the summer, it is not absolutely essential for them to have a 
swimming place, any more than for ducks. They will keep 
themselves cleaner if a stream is available, and the chances are 
the fertility of their eggs will be greater. Then, too, the stream 
of water affords a large element of their food, which is of immense 
value in the cost of their upkeep. But it does not follow that 
they are not to be reared on farms without a watering place. 

Age. — One of the most remarkable characteristics of the goose 
is its long life. Many have been known to attain the age of 
forty years, and have been handed down from father to son, as 
though they were a fixture on the farm. It is not at all uncom- 
mon for birds to live fifteen years, and as a general rule they 
will maintain their laying and hatching qualities throughout 
their life. Ganders are at their best as breeders at three years 
of age. The use of immature stock should be avoided as much 
as possible, especially for the renewal of breeding geese. To 
produce early goslings for market it is sometimes necessary to 
use eggs from young stock, as they usually lay earlier than the 
older birds, which is perfectly proper. 

In selecting geese for breeders excessive size should not be 
sought at the expense of other important features, such as width 
of breast in proportion to length of body, depth of keel and 
shortness of leg. Care should be taken to avoid inbreeding, and 
to be sure of this it is sometimes necessary to procure ganders 
from a distant point. If so, the ganders should come from the 
same flock to insure their dwelling together amicably. 



534 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Mating. — As a rule three geese are mated to one gander, but 
in the case of very large specimens it is sometimes better to 
mate two geese to one gander. It is well to start this mating in 
the autumn, for geese are rather eccentric creatures, and require 
some time before they become accustomed to new surroundings 
and settle down to work in earnest. They also make strong 
companionships, and will pine and worry for weeks at the loss 
of a mate. 

It is usually more economical to keep geese in one large flock, 
in preference to several small flocks, particularly if they have to 
be driven to pasture. When the ganders are admitted to the 
flock for the first time, and they are to be mated one to three, 
each gander will select his three wives to whom he will remain 
devoted for years. One of these three will probably receive the 
most attention, however, and will be his chief consort in their 
ramblings. 

Laying. — Young geese usually commence laying in February, 
and the older ones in March, although if the weather is unusually 
mild they will start a month earlier. During the winter months, 
preparatory to this breeding season, the stock should not be 
allowed to become too fat, for an over-fat condition is not con- 
ducive to either productiveness or fertility. So long as there is 
pasture for them, they require very little grain. 

When pasture is not to be had, and they are fed a grain diet, 
the greater part of this ration should be soft food, such as bran, 
middlings, corn meal and so on, with a little beef scrap. At 
least ten per cent of the bulk of this food should be green stuffs 
of some kind, either parings, cooked vegetables, or steamed 
clover or alfalfa. It should be moistened by skimmed milk or 
water. Grit and oyster shells are kept before them at all times 
the same as for chickens. Most breeders feed the soft food in 
the early morning, and a light feeding of cracked corn at night. 

Broodiness. — The goose usually lays an egg every other day, 
until from ten to fifteen eggs have been laid, when she will 
become broody. As soon as this inclination presents itself, the 
goose should be removed from the nest and her maternal in- 



CARE OF GOSLINGS 535 

stincts broken up, whereupon she will join the flock and again 
commence laying. After she lays the second clutch and becomes 
broody, she should be discouraged again, and made to complete 
the third laying. The second and third clutches are not apt to 
be so large as the first, being one to three eggs less. 

Nests. — Geese make their own nests from straw on the floor 
of their houses, if they are encouraged to do so, otherwise they 
may lay outdoors or in remote spots where the eggs are likely 
to spoil. By the time the goose has completed laying a clutch 
of eggs, she will have lined the nest with a thick covering of down 
plucked from her breast, which makes a nice warm place for the 
goslings to hatch. From ten to twelve eggs is the correct number 
to place under a goose, and care should be taken that the broody 
one is not too warlike in her attitude. If such is the case, she is 
very apt to crush her eggs, especially during the last few days 
of hatching, when the shells become more or less fragile. For this 
reason many goose breeders prefer to have the hatching done by 
hens, giving the hens about four eggs each. It is well to give 
the first eggs laid by the geese to hens, or they may be hatched 
in incubators with good success. 

Hatching. — From twenty-eight to thirty days are required to 
incubate goose eggs, and they require a great deal of moisture, 
much the same as duck eggs. They should be sprinkled at fre- 
quent intervals, and given plenty of time to cool after the first 
week. 

When the hatching is done by geese, the little goslings should 
be carefully removed from under the goose as they are hatched, 
allowing but one to remain to reassure the mother; otherwise 
the great weight of the goose is apt to crush them, or she will 
trample them. The goslings may be kept in a warm box, and 
when the hatch is completed and they are sturdy enough to 
walk about, which is usually on the second day, and at which 
time the yolks have been absorbed, they may be given back to 
their mother. The goose and her brood should be housed in a 
sheltered spot, and the mother confined for the first week, at 
the same time giving the goslings their freedom, which prevents 



536 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



the old goose from taking her charge too far afield and exhausting 
them. 

When a gosling is a week old it is usually reckoned as a grown 
bird, for, barring accidents, it is a very hardy creature and will 
make rapid growth. If given good pasture they require but one 
feeding daily after they are two weeks old, but they should be 
returned to the security of the goose house every night. 




Fig. 328. — Muscovy ducks are sometimes regarded as geese. 



Turkey hens make good mothers for geese, because they can 
cover so many eggs; but they should be confined with their 
broods for the first week. When goose eggs are placed under 
chicken hens, the caretaker should make it a point "to turn the 
eggs daily, for they are too heavy for the hen to do this. 

The prices obtained for geese in the large city markets run 
from fourteen to twenty cents per pound live weight, which 
quickly mounts up when we consider their great weight. In 



PROFITS FROM FEATHERS 537 

addition to this revenue, there is a nice profit to be made from 
the feathers. A prime goose will average about one pound of 
feathers a year, and feathers of good quality will bring from 
forty-five to sixty cents a pound. If the down is separated from 
the feathers, it will bring about a dollar a pound. The feathers 
should be plucked when there is no blood in the ends of the 
quills. 



CHAPTER XLII 
TURKEYS 

Turkey Hearsay. — There is a widespread impression in some 
localities that turkeys are exceedingly difficult to raise, and that 
due to a heavy mortality among young turkeys the chances for 
profit are very precarious. Much of this hearsay is nonsense, 
gossip — pure and simple, or let us call it turkey tradition, 
mysticism. Like other traditions or prejudices, these- notions 
are hard to eradicate. The beginner with turkeys should dis- 
abuse his mind of these notions, discard them utterly, since 
they contribute nothing to the industry but fear and worriment. 

Susceptible to Exposure. — It is true that young turkeys are 
delicate and that they are susceptible to exposure, to cold and 
dampness, but they are nothing like as frail as one might sup- 
pose, judging from the popular idea. For that matter chicks 
are delicate creatures, too, and unable to endure exposure. The 
young of all fowls require a great deal of care for the first few 
weeks; it is a part of the business of growing livestock of any 
kind. The point is to master the details in the most practical, 
labor-saving manner. With proper care a good proportion of 
the poults can be raised, and when the holiday season comes 
round a handsome profit has accrued. 

Standard Varieties. — No doubt it will surprise those who have 
but a casual knowledge of turkeys to learn that there are seven 
different varieties of domestic turkeys in the United States, each 
with certain points of excellence, and ranging in color from white 
to black. Many of us think of turkeys as being of a single breed, 
commonly known as the Bronze, or Mammoth Bronze; a few 
are familiar with the White Holland and Narragansett varieties; 
whereas only those who have made a study of these fowls know 

538 



STANDARD VARIETIES 539 

about the Bourbon Reds, Slate turkeys, Black turkeys and Buff 
turkeys. The Buffs and Slates have always been rare, and to-day 
the Blacks are seldom bred. The Bronze Is the most popular, 
next comes the Narragansett, and then the White Holland, 
though in recent years the Bourbon Red has grown into con- 
siderable favor and may be entitled to third position. 

The exact origin of the domestic turkey will probably never 
be satisfactorily settled, for ornithologists are greatly at variance 
on this subject. The most accepted view of the matter is that 
all the turkeys of the world have descended in some way from 
the three forms of wild turkeys, the North American, the Mexi- 
can, and the Honduras, or Ocellated turkey. There seems to be 
no question concerning the transportation of these birds from 
America to Spain about the year 1520, and that they were sub- 
sequently shipped to England, in 1524, where they soon became 
very popular and were extensively bred. Many improvements 
were made among the English breeders, but it remained for 
American fanciers to develop the present standard varieties. 

The color of the North American wild turkey is much the same 
as the Bronze. It is black, wonderfully shaded with bronze, 
the breast plumage being dark bronze, illuminated with a lus- 
trous copper or gold color. The name Bronze is derived from 
this beautiful metallic sheen. 

Mexican Turkey. — The wild turkey of the southern part of 
the continent, known as the Mexican turkey, is shorter in shank 
than the North American species. The color is much the same, 
except for the white markings on the tips of the feathers, which 
is considered to be responsible for the color of the domestic 
variety known as the Narragansett. From the meager records 
available, the Mexican turkey was the first variety to be taken 
to Europe by the Spaniards. 

The Ocellated turkey, indigenous to Honduras and other 
Central American countries, is considered to be the most beauti- 
ful in color, and may be compared to the Impeyan pheasant. 
The ground color of the plumage is a bronze-green, banded with 
bars of gold, blue and red, or a lustrous black. The head and 



540 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



neck are devoid of feathers, and unlike the other wild varieties, 
it has no breast tuft. Unfortunately, this breed will not thrive 
in northern climates; it seems to be too sensitive to cold. 

The domestic Bronze turkey is too well known to require 
any particular description. See Fig. 329. It is being raised 
almost to the exclusion of all other varieties, and holds the post 
of honor for size and market requirements. Hens of this species 




Fig. 329. — Bronze turkeys. 



run from sixteen to twenty pounds or more, and while the Stan- 
dard of Perfection calls for a weight of thirty-six pounds for 
gobblers, they are often brought to much higher figures — even 
exceeding fifty pounds. 

The Narragansett is next in size to the Bronze, and back in 
the days when Rhode Island was the leading turkey state of 
the Union, this variety was one of the most widely bred through- 



BOURBON REDS 541 

out New England. The ground color of the plumage is black, 
with markings of white and black which imparts a grayish cast 
to the entire surface. The female is lighter in color throughout 
than the male. The standard weight for hens is eighteen pounds, 
and for cocks thirty pounds, though they are grown almost as 
heavy as the Bronzes. If anything, the Narragansett is more 
suitable for market purposes than the Bronze, inasmuch as it 
has fuller, plumper breast, and will mature slightly earlier. 
Furthermore, they seem to bear confinement better. 

The Bourbon Reds have attained great popularity in the West, 
though still rarely bred in the Eastern states, and rank very 
high as a market bird. They are hardy, mature rapidly, have 
excellent quality of flesh, and their weights are about equal to 
the Narragansett. The plumage is a chestnut color, which is 
made strikingly beautiful by brownish red markings and pure 
white tail and wing feathers. 

White Holland turkeys are now quite widely known ; at first 
they were small and delicate and not so desirable. See Fig. 330. 
They are beautiful birds, with snowy white plumage and pink 
bills and shanks, and are considered sports from other turkeys. 
In recent years the breed has been improved in size and vigor 
by the infusion of blood from the white sports of Bronze and 
Narragansett varieties. Just why the name Holland attaches 
to this species is not definitely understood. They may have 
originated in Holland or been brought to this country by Hol- 
landers, but it is certain that they were not natural to the Nether- 
lands. They have been known to exist in England for over a 
hundred years, and are sometimes referred to as "Austrian 
Whites." 

Dress Well for Market.— It is thought that the Whites are 
more difficult to raise than the darker varieties, though they 
mature rapidly, attaining market size in five to eight months. 
They dress splendidly for market, as with all white poultry, 
the pin feathers show less than in darker birds, and their feath- 
ers command higher prices than those of the colored breeds. 
The standard weight for hens is eighteen pounds, and for cocks 



542 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



twenty-eight pounds. At recent exhibitions I have seen toms 
that weighed thirty-five pounds, but this is unusual. . 

The Black turkey is much the same as the English Norfolk 
turkey, and is very desirable for table purposes. The young are 
quite hardy when produced by strong, non-related stock, and 
when it is necessary to confine turkeys upon a more or less 
restricted area, the average farmer will do well to select this 
variety. They are not so large as the other breeds, except the 




JW^' 




Fig. 330. — White Holland turkeys. 



Giant Blacks, which closely resemble the Bronzes in everything 
but plumage. 

The Slate turkey, sometimes called the Blue turkey, and the 
Buff turkey, range from ten to twenty-five pounds, according 
to age and sex, and may be raised to advantage in almost any 
locality. These varieties have been neglected for some reason 
or other, in spite of the fact that they possess qualities that are 
the equal of the more popular varieties. Lately, fanciers have 



VIGOROUS PARENT STOCK REQUIRED 543 

devoted considerable attention to the Buffs, which are truly 
beautiful specimens. 

Profitable. — When we consider that from the time turkeys 
are six weeks old until winter sets in, they will obtain the greater 
part of their sustenance from the fields and woods over which 
they roam, and this assures their keep at virtually no expense 
to the grower, the question naturally arises: Why is the farmer 
not more enthusiastic about growing them? And what is re- 
sponsible for the losses that we hear so much about? 

These losses really do exist, of this there can be no doubt, 
and with the industry in its present stage it is likely to be accom- 
panied by grave uncertainties. Turkey raising demands the 
best efforts of which we are capable — and then some. It is no 
secret, however, that many of the failures are attributable to 
gross carelessness or ignorance, or both. The whole question of 
deriving a profit from turkeys resolves itself into the ability of 
the grower to rear the poults, the young turkeys. If the same 
intelligent care in selecting the breeders is applied to turkeys 
as we unquestionably devote to the scientific breeding of cattle, 
sheep, hogs and horses, then we are in a fair way to achieve 
success. 

Deterioration through inbreeding is the greatest foe of the 
turkey industry, and it has been brought about by the heed- 
lessness of hundreds of farmers who have declined to consider 
the necessity of infusing new blood into their flocks. For gen- 
erations turkey growers in many of our eastern states have de- 
pended upon their neighbors for the service of male birds, giving 
no thought to the inevitable consequences, until in some localities 
it is difficult to find any unrelated stock. This total disregard of 
the fundamental laws of nature has in some sections reduced the 
condition of turkeys almost to a state of imbecility, and so 
undermined the vitality of the birds as to make it difficult to 
rear a tenth of the number of poults hatched. 

Avoid Inbreeding as You Would a Plague. — New blood is of 
vital importance. It is better to send a thousand miles for a 
new male than to run the chances of inbreeding. Whenever 



544 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

possible the torn should be a yearling, and the hens not less than 
two years old. The hens from good stock will cost about five 
dollars each, and the gobbler from six to ten dollars. A less 
expensive way to start may be made with eggs purchased from 
reliable breeders. When this is done, it is better to secure set- 
tings from different localities, and the poults carefully marked when 
hatched so that they can be properly crossed another season. 

Time to Start. — The fall and early winter is the best time to 
make a start with turkeys, for at these seasons there is a greater 
number of birds from which to make a selection, and they are 
generally offered at better prices. Furthermore, stock bought 
at this time will become accustomed to each other and to their 
new quarters before the breeding season commences, conse- 
quently better results are likely to be secured. 

Parent Stock. — Every precaution should be taken to obtain 
strong, vigorous stock. Do not imagine that size is the main 
point of excellence. A medium-sized gobbler weighing about 
twenty-five pounds will usually render more satisfactory results 
than an over-heavy specimen. In all fowls, remember that 
size is largely influenced by the female, and the color and dis- 
tinguishing characteristics by the male. The hens should be 
well matured, weighing not less than fourteen pounds, intelli- 
gent and tame, as distinguished from wild and unduly excitable 
birds, and of pronounced constitutional vigor. 

A safe rule for mating is to have a torn for every four to six 
hens. Good fertility is reported from matings of a male to every 
twelve females, but I am inclined to think this is unusual. On 
farms where the flocks are yarded it is customary to keep two 
cocks for every eight or ten hens, and to alternate the males 
about twice a week, keeping one penned aloof, while the other 
is with the flock. When turkeys are given unlimited range, 
which is the most successful method of raising them, they natur- 
ally divide into flocks. 

Management. — It is said that the real secret of success in 
rearing turkeys is exercise. They must have an abundance of 
food, and to maintain the necessary health to assimilate large 




35 



545 



546 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

quantities of food, they must have an abundance of exercise. 
The idea is entirely logical. Turkeys are large birds, semi-wild 
by nature, possessed of a roving disposition, and fully capable of 
taking care of themselves. To confine them is to impose a feel- 
ing of constraint and worriment, over which they never cease to 
fret. To do well turkeys must have range. Only a few should 
be attempted in a confined space, and even then they will require 
painstaking care. 

Feeds. — Much of the so-called bad luck in turkey raising — infer- 
tility, soft-shelled eggs and impaired vigor — is due to improper 
feeding. Avoid having the breeding stock too fat. If they have 
become so during the winter season, endeavor to reduce them to 
medium flesh before the mating season. Oats is one of the best 
feeds during the breeding months, with an occasional feeding of 
wheat, corn, barley and ground bone. Grit, oyster shells and 
charcoal should be kept within easy reach of the birds at all 
times, also a plentiful supply of fresh drinking water. 

Roosts. — Turkeys do better when they can roost in the open. 
Only in storms do they seek protection, and not always then. 
Fences and trees are preferable to tight houses, for the turkey 
must have unrestricted ventilation. It is most unwise to com- 
pel them to roost with other poultry. If found necessary to 
house them, which is recommended in extremely cold climates, 
their quarters should be roomy and perfectly ventilated. The 
ideal shelter consists of an open-front shed or house, which is 
sufficient to protect them from heavy storms and from enemies, 
such as dogs. Foxes take a heavy toll of turkeys annually, 
especially if there is much brush or wooded areas nearby. 

With the approach of cold weather, when insect food and 
greens become scarce, an increased grain diet must be provided 
for the growing turkeys. Do not give the flock large quantities 
at first, but work up the supply gradually, until they are having 
all they will eat up clean. Wheat and corn is about the best 
ration. Keep them growing and fattening as fast as possible, 
so that by the time Thanksgiving week arrives, and prices are 
usually the best, they will be in prime condition for marketing. 



PREPARING TURKEYS FOR MARKET • 547 

To grow the best is more expensive than to grow the poorer 
grades, but the profits to be gained are almost double. 

After the turkeys are ready for market quite as much care 
should be given to the killing, dressing and shipping, not to 
forget grading, as to the growing. If these conditions cannot 
be obtained, it is better to sell the birds alive to someone who 
makes a business of handling such stock. 

Kill Nothing but Well-fattened Stock. — It never pays to send 
poor stock to market. Skinny, gawky, crooked-breasted car- 
casses are undesirable. Keep the stock away from food or water 
for at least twelve hours before killing, preferably for twenty- 
four hours. The food tract must be emptied, otherwise there is 
danger of discoloration or spoiling. Full crops and full entrails 
may increase the weight slightly, but they discount the price 
so heavily, there is nothing to be gained, only disappointment. 
Crops distended with food are sour, sometimes tainting the 
flesh, but in any event they are uninviting to the careful buyer. 

There are several methods of killing, but the most popular 
way is to suspend the fowl by the shanks, head down, and cut 
or stick it in the roof of the mouth with a sharp, narrow-bladed 
knife. This severs the arteries, causing a hemorrhage, and at 
the same time pierces the brain, causing insensibility. The flow 
of blood should be copious, for poorly bled fowls are likely to 
be purplish-tinted. 

Dislocation. — Another method is to dislocate the neck by a 
sudden twist and jerk. The disjointed part of the neck is then 
pulled away, so as to form an open space into which the blood 
may settle. Dislocation is claimed by some to be the only sani- 
tary, up-to-date method of killing, since there is no opening by 
which air can get into the body. It is used more for chickens 
than for turkeys, and requires considerable practice to do it 
well. Then there is the old-fashioned method of beheading 
with an ax, which should never be used, except on birds intended 
for home use, and even then it is a very poor mode. 

Dry-picking is the only way to pluck poultry for a fancy 
market. As soon as the bird is stuck, and while the blood is 



548 • COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

still flowing, commence to remove the feathers, taking great 
care not to break the skin or tear the flesh. Purple abrasions, 
often noticeable on plucked fowls, are due to bruises and rough 
handling. Avoid these. Nothing detracts so much from the 
appearance of dressed poultry as careless workmanship in the 
picking. It will also mean a reduction in the selling price. 
Remove the pin feathers with a blunt knife. 

In dressing turkeys a small ruff of neck feathers and the wing 
tips are undisturbed; this is a conventionality found in most 
markets. To complete the dressing, cleanse the mouth and 
head of any blood, and wash the feet thoroughly. Never remove 
the head, feet or entrails. Some years ago it was the practice 
to remove the viscera, but modern efficiency has found that 
the undrawn carcass, from which all animal heat has been 
expelled, is the most sanitary. 

Cooling. — When the fowl is plucked hang it in a cool place, 
head down, until the heat is entirely gone from the body; it is 
then ready for packing. Poultry should not be allowed to freeze 
for it will spoil the appearance. 

Packing and Shipping. — Barrels are generally preferable to 
boxes for shipping poultry, and they are easily obtained at a 
small cost. Line the package with manila paper, — do not use 
soiled or printed paper, — and pack as tightly as possible to avoid 
shifting about in transit. In warm weather use ice, or if the con- 
signment is billed for a long distance. Head the barrel securely, 
and mark its contents plainly on the head to whom it is shipped, 
and the name of the shipper. Never ship mixed lots of poultry 
in the same package if it can be avoided. Graded shipments 
invite good treatment on the part of the merchants, facilitate 
sales, and are rewarded by larger returns. In short, it pays 
handsomely to take a few extra pains. 

Turkey Nests. — If left to follow her own inclinations the hen 
turkey will select some secluded place for her nest, probably 
under a pile of logs, in the brush or in the lee of a stone wall; 
but, unless the flock is particularly wild, the hens can be induced 
to adopt more suitable laying quarters, than which nothing is 



TURKEY NESTS 



549 



more practical than barrels laid on their sides and blocked to 
keep them from rolling, and lined on the bottom with sod cov- 
ered with straw or hay for nesting material. Sugar barrels 
answer the purpose nicely; they are easy to handle, and not only 
make an excellent protection from cold winds and rains, but hot 
days as well. Later, when the brood is hatched a board may be 




Fig. 332. — Combination chicken and squab farm in New Jersey. 



nailed to the lower end so that the little turkeys cannot start to 
roam at too tender an age. 

Turkeys usually commence laying about the first of April, 
and the earlier the eggs can be hatched after the middle of May 
the longer the period of growth before the first holiday demand. 
Six months at least are required to bring them to a profitable 
marketable size, yet if their environment and feeding are cor- 
rect this can be readily done. 

The hen will lay from 15 to 20 eggs before becoming broody, 



550 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

and if one wishes to obtain a second clutch of eggs, it is not diffi- 
cult to break her of broodiness, whereupon she will soon start 
laying again. The first clutch of eggs may either be sold or 
placed under chicken hens to be hatched. The eggs should be 
gathered as promptly as possible and stored in a clean, cool 
place. They should not be kept too long, for their vitality de- 
preciates rapidly. The poult issuing from the egg that is set 
within a few days of its being laid is noticeably sturdy. 

As a rule 18 eggs are sufficient for a turkey hen to cover 
properly, and 10 eggs for the chicken hen to manage. If more 
than these are placed under the birds there is danger of the eggs 
being chilled at times, and poor hatches will result. Before set- 
ting the hen dust her thoroughly with a lice-expelling powder, 
also the nest and nesting material. This will prevent trouble 
from lice or mites, either of which may cause the hen to desert 
her nest. When the hatch is ready to come off the hen and nest 
should be dusted for the second time. Nothing is more fatal to 
turkey health than parasites. 

Eternal vigilance should be the watchword. When the little 
ones droop search for vermin, and be satisfied with only the 
closest scrutiny. Vermin is responsible for some of the greatest 
losses. How the turkeys become infested is sometimes an 
enigma — from coops, from other poultry, from sparrows — despite 
the best care these pests will put in an appearance, and a vig- 
orous campaign against them is necessary. Poults so afflicted 
will sicken and die as though stricken with some wasting 
disease. In fact, the poor little things are frequently dosed 
internally with medicine, when their dire need is an insect 
powder. 

From 27 to 29 days are required to hatch turkey eggs, depend- 
ing upon their freshness, weather conditions and the devotion of 
the hen in charge. During this time she should not be disturbed 
in any way. If frightened or driven from the nest the hen is 
apt to abandon the eggs entirely. Some hens will rear two 
broods in a season, and while the late-hatched brood will not 
mature early enough to meet the demand of roasters, nor are 



FEED AND CARE OF POULTS 



551 



they so desirable as breeders, they may be grown as broiler 
poults and as such sold to advantage. 

Poults Unlike Chicks. — Many poultrymen have met with dis- 
aster with turkeys because they tried to apply the same care to 
the poults that they were accustomed to giving little chicks. 
This is a great mistake, for on vital points the turk and the chick 
are widely different. Poults have a ravenous appetite, without 
the chicks' capacity for digesting and assimilating large quan- 
tities of food within a short space of time. They require a cer- 
tain amount of exercise as an aid to digestion, yet too much 




(Courtqsy V. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
Fig. 333. — Typical pigeon house and fly. ■ 



running around wearies them to the point of complete exhaustion. 
To guard against this, especially if chicken hens are being used 
for mothers, the hens should be confined for the greater part 
of the day for the first week, or until the poults have gained 
sufficient strength to be taken far afield. Chicks seldom tire in 
this way, and will trudge along unceasingly from dawn to dark 
without ill effects. Still another point: soured food or partially 
decayed food, which a chicken might eat with safety, works 
havoc with the turk's digestion. 

Diet. — Many of the difficulties with turkeys spring from the 



552 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

attempt to make them conform to an unnatural diet and man- 
agement. The turkey raiser should always bear in mind that 
poults are seed-eating chicks, not slop eaters. In the wild state 
their food consisted of the bugs, worms, seed sand other tid- 
bits which they hunted for in the woods and fields. In this 
habitat there was no overfeeding of unnatural, concentrated 
foods, likely to impair health and produce bowel troubles. 

Like quail and other wild birds, turkeys subsisted by their 
own efforts as foragers, and they were strong and vigorous, 
whereas in a domestic or even semi-domestic state, they are too 
often forced to eat unnatural foods with the idea of forcing them 
to make an unnaturally rapid growth. Some breeders feed bread 
and milk as soon as the poults will eat, while others feed dry 
bread; some adhere strictly to a grain diet, while others feed 
anything that happens to come to hand. The writer has seen 
farmers' wives feed an exclusive diet of corn meal and skim milk 
curds, believing that they were taking special pains with their 
turkeys. Either the corn meal or the curds alone was enough 
to kill the brood, and about the only thing that saved them was 
the combination. The evil of the corn meal helped to offset the 
evil effects of the curds. 

Foods. — As a general practice dry foods are safer than moist 
ones, though milk is very beneficial when fed judiciously. Stale 
bread soaked in milk, with the milk pressed from the bread 
before feeding, is a good food for the first few days, and it should 
be sprinkled with a fine grit. The addition of a little hard- 
boiled egg is good. Fine oatmeal or finely cracked wheat and 
corn and a little granulated beef scrap are excellent rations. 
Bread baked from corn meal, middlings, bran and ground oats 
may be used, and after a few days add a little meat scrap. A 
small quantity of lean beef cooked and chopped into fine bits is 
a strengthening ration, but care must be taken that the meat is 
sweet. Nothing will start bowel troubles quicker than tainted 
beef. Raw meat and green bone should be avoided for this 
reason. 

Feed the poults frequently, giving them but a little at a time, 



FEED AND CARE OF POULTS 553 

and be particularly sparing with the concentrated foods, such as 
grains in the hulls — millet, kaffir corn and so on. Too much 
hard-boiled egg or milk curds will congest the bowels. Do not 
forget to provide succulence; green stuff should constitute at 
least a half of the fare. Keep an abundance of clean water 
before the poults at all times, also a plentiful supply of sharp 
grit. Charcoal should be mixed with the food or fed separately; 
it aids digestion and guards against fermentation in the crop and 
gizzard. 

Attention Required. — It should also be remembered that turkey 
hens are not apt to be so attentive to their young as chicken hens, 
especially in the matter of feeding; moreover, the turks are not 
so apt as chicks in learning how to eat. The chick commences 
to peck at objects almost as soon as it is hatched, but not so 
with poults. They seem particularly unintelligent little creatures 
in this respect, and the idea of looking on the ground or floor 
for food never seems to occur to them. Indeed, sometimes they 
run about with their heads in the air crying for food, until they 
weaken and die from exhaustion. The turkey grower must be 
on the lookout for this, and if necessary teach the poults by hand 
feeding. It involves considerable time and trouble, of course, 
but the advantages gained in giving the little turks a good start 
will more than compensate for one's pains. 

By all means keep the brood dry — dampness is fatal. Do not 
allow the hen to take her brood into the tall grass early in the 
morning when the dew is on it, or trudge about on rainy days. 
Keep her penned up in an airy, roomy coop until conditions are 
favorable. It is also imprudent to expose the brood to intense 
heat, for they will wilt under it as though suffering with sun- 
stroke. Shade of some kind must be provided in hot weather so 
that they can escape the direct rays of the sun. 

Moderation in all things is the secret to success. Avoid damp- 
ness and filth, guard against vermin, do not overfeed and do not 
overcrowd; these are the essential features. 



CHAPTER XLIII 
GUINEA FOWLS 

Nature of Guineas. — Generally speaking, until recent years 
the guinea has merely been tolerated on the farm, and seldom 
regarded as profitable. Semi-wild by nature, noisy; nighty and 
unmanageable, they exhausted the patience of the farmer and 
were too troublesome for serious consideration. Their chief 
virtue, it seemed, was their well-known habit of setting up a 
discordant chorus at the slightest provocation. If a hawk ap- 
peared, or an animal or person approached the barnyard, these 
alarmists immediately burst into a raucous denunciation. Woe 
betide those who trespass on lands where guineas abound ; nothing 
seems to escape their notice. 

Left to their own devices guineas will skirt the edges of civil- 
ized poultrydom, multiplying in distant fields and hedge rows, 
but rarely reproducing more than their own number. Though 
a hen will often hatch a large brood, it is seldom that she man- 
ages to raise more than two or three chicks, and often not that 
many. For some obscure reason the mother guinea does not 
seem to realize that her little ones are frail creatures, unable to 
withstand extremes of heat and cold, moisture and long tramps 
afield. Their habits with their young, seem to be about as sense- 
less as their noise, which probably accounts in a large measure 
for their culture having been neglected. 

Snows and stormy weather sometimes drive the guineas to 
the barnyard for food and shelter, but as a rule they are very 
independent. Therefore, having cost the farmer -nothing, he 
was satisfied to sell them in an indifferent market for forty or 
fifty cents a pair, or to tolerate them for the sake of an occa- 
sional Sunday dinner for the family. No one will ever become 
rich raising guineas, and it is hardly likely that any one will 

554 



DOMESTIC BIRD WITH GAME FLAVOR 



555 



find it feasible to raise them as a commercial proposition, that 
is — to make a living by keeping them as a specialty; but they 
can be kept as a profitable side line. 

The delicately wild flavor of the guinea's flesh and its tenderly 
plump, dark breast commend it to the epicure. The appetites of 
hotel and restaurant patrons are keen for game birds, but owing 
to the increasing scarcity of these delicacies, those who cater to 
epicurean tastes have had to seek substitutes for quail and 




Experiment Stati 



(Courtesy Pi 

pj g 334.— Open-front poultry house. Windows at top permit sunlight to flood 
the rear of the building, where it is most needed. 



pheasant that were hitherto plentiful. In consequence, much of 
the so-called game listed on menus is — guinea. Whether the 
epicure eats it under its own name, or deludes his palate with 
the thought of wild fowl, he must admit that the guinea rivals 
quail. Hence more young guineas are eaten now than ever 
before, and the demand is steadily growing. The truth of this 
is reflected in the prices received from dealers; instead of forty 
or fifty cents a pair, guineas now bring about a dollar a pair and 
more. And their eggs are considered quite a delicacy. 



556 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

Varieties. — There are two popular varieties of guineas — Pearl 
and White, the only difference being in their color. The Pearl 
variety should be bluish-gray in color, each feather marked with 
white spots resembling pearls, hence its name, but it must be 
free from any solid white feathers in any part of its plumage. 
The White variety should be a pure white in plumage, with orange 
or yellowish-white bill and legs. 

In the Pearl variety the bill and legs are brown. Some speci- 
mens of this variety have white breasts, or breasts of a lighter 
gray color than the back and other plumage, which denotes a 
cross between the Pearl and White, hence they are mongrels. 
For size, egg production and other characteristics both varieties 
are equally desirable, although the Pearl Guinea is probably the 
most common. The flesh of both is dark, but that of the White, 
or of the White crossed with Pearl, is a shade lighter. 

Except in size, a newly hatched Pearl Guinea is the replica 
of a baby partridge; markings, colorings and contour are iden- 
tical. Lately, there has come to be another variety known as 
the Dove Guinea, but it is scarcely popular enough to be recog- 
nized. 

Sex. — The amateur has great difficulty in telling males from 
females; at a casual glance they are indistinguishable. The 
most accurate method of distinguishing the sex is by the cry — 
the hen has the preponderance of vocabulary. The well-known 
potrack, buckwheat or too quick is uttered by the female only, 
while the che or tck is typical of both male and female. More- 
over, the female seldom screeches like the cock. Those who are 
well acquainted with the fowl will observe that the male has a 
larger spike on his head, and that the ear-lobes are also larger 
than those of the hen, and that the lobes generally curl in a sort 
of semi-circle toward the beak. It will also be noted that the 
cocks usually hold their heads higher than the hens. 

The male selects his mate and his devotion is steadfast. 
While the hen attends to the duties of maternity, the male 
remains close by, ready at the least sign of danger to utter his 
shrill cry of alarm. When the brood appears, he shares the 



HATCHING AND CARE OF GUINEA CHICKS 



557 



responsibility of food and shelter, and should misfortune over- 
take the hen, the cock assumes her duties in a thoroughly com- 
petent manner. 

Nests are often located by the observance of guineas feeding 
solitarily, since this is a pretty sure sign of the male bird, and 
that the hen is laying nearby. They will make their nests in 
remote, out-of-the-way places, under hedges, bushes, brush- 
heaps or wheat shocks, and if their nests are disturbed they will 
move to another place. Laying begins about the middle of April, 




(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 

Fig- 335- — Another view of house shown in Fig. 334, taken in midwinter. 
Fowls are in splendid condition, proving that they require an abundance of 
fresh air, providing the house is free from drafts and dampness. 



and if broodiness is discouraged it will continue throughout the 
summer. 

Rearing Young. — Owing to the heavy mortality among broods 
reared by guinea hens all attempts to raise a large flock by 
natural methods will be discouragingly slow. On the other hand, 
to raise the guinea chicks by artificial brooding methods is 
equally difficult. When placed in a hover, they either remain 
there all the time, or come out and cannot find their way back. 
Unlike young chickens, they are particularly stupid in learning 



558 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

how to eat or drink without the aid of a hen, consequently they 
soon pine away and die. They do not seem to have the imita- 
tive ways of other young fowls, and in many respects they re- 
semble young turkeys. 

Experiments have been made by placing newly hatched chick- 
ens with the young guineas, with the hope that the guineas 
would learn how to eat and drink from their companions and 
become hover broken; but not so. The guineas stood around 
until they were weakened by cold and hunger, while the chickens 
thrived. Apparently, the only other way to raise guinea chicks 
is under chicken hens, and this may be done very successfully. 

Hatching with Chicken Hens. — The eggs should be given to 
reliable sitting hens, such as Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes — 
about sixteen eggs to each hen, or the eggs may be started in 
an incubator and later given to the hens. From twenty-six to 
twenty-eight days are required to hatch guinea eggs, and true 
to their heritage of fear, as soon as they leave their shells the 
little fellows slink into corners of the nest away from the prying 
eyes of the attendant. Naturally, their foster-mother's call is a 
foreign language to them, which they find difficult to understand 
at first, and until they get to know the meaning of cluck, and 
the hen becomes accustomed to their peculiarities, they must 
not be allowed to roam. 

Care should be taken at the beginning to see that the hen 
accepts her responsibility kindly, for sometimes chicken hens are 
antagonistic to young that is not their own, and will kill the 
guineas. When the hen has proved her dependability she may 
be given twenty chicks; she can easily take care of this number; 
and if she is a very large hen, twenty-five chicks are not too 
many. 

The hen and her brood must be confined in a coop for the 
first few days, after which they may be given the freedom of a 
small yard. Later, after the attendant has observed that the 
chicks respond to their foster-mother's guidance, they may be 
allowed complete freedom with the hen. Do not confine the hen 
within a slatted coop and allow the chicks to run abroad, as is 




559 



560 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

the custom with young chickens, for unlike young chickens, the 
guinea chicks will not always return to the hen in the coop. 

Furthermore, it is important to keep the chicks off the wet 
grass and out of the rain for the first month, for like young 
turkeys, dampness is fatal. Failure to appreciate this fact is 
responsible for the heavy losses among broods reared by guinea 
hens. They have been known to start out in the morning with 
large healthy broods, and return at night without a single chick 
— the entire flock having perished along the route from exposure 
and exhaustion. 

Guinea chicks are ravenous little creatures, and for the first 
week they should be fed five or six times a day. If allowed to 
become too hungry they will over-eat, and digestive troubles 
may result. They thrive on bread crumbs and rolled oats, mixed 
with hard-boiled egg, or on fine ground chick-food. Sour or 
fresh milk may be substituted for the egg. Owing to its insec- 
tivorous nature, the guinea requires a large proportion of animal 
food, also green food, and they must have plenty of water to 
drink, grit and charcoal. As soon as they are large enough to 
be given free range, which should be done at the earliest possible 
moment, for guineas do not thrive well in confinement, they will 
forage for the greater part of their keep. At such times they 
may be fed a coarser chick-feed, wheat, and later, corn. 

Maturity. — Broods hatch from May to September, and in 
three or four months they will reach the marketable weight of 
one and a half to two and a half pounds. They rarely suffer 
from any of the countless diseases that poultrydom is heir to, 
and no houses are essential for their comfort, except during the 
brooding season. The hens are prolific layers, and as the chicks 
reach a marketable size at an early age, they yield a quick return 
for their feed and care. The one serious problem is in raising 
the chicks for the first month, after which success is assured. 

Guineas should be killed by sticking — severing the blood- 
vessels on the inside of the throat, so that no cuts are visible, 
and after the birds are dead and have finished bleeding, all 
blood clots and smears should be carefully washed off, that they 



DISTRUSTFUL NATURE 561 

may present an attractive appearance when marketed. Guineas 
are almost always shipped without removing any of the feathers, 
which is another factor in favor of the producer. Ninety cents 
a pair is probably the average price in the large Eastern markets, 
and at this figure there is a nice profit for the producer. 

Distrustful Nature. — In no other fowl does the instinct of dis- 
trust seem such a conspicuous characteristic as in the guinea, 
and this timorousness is responsible for its hitherto limited list 
of friends; yet for all this senseless hysteria and shyness, they 
can be made to yield a certain amount of confidence to the 
attendant who treats them kindly and feeds them regularly, and 
in so doing there is both profit and interest in their culture. To 
frighten or treat them roughly is to alienate them beyond hope, 
and their propensity for flying makes them exceedingly difficult 
to capture; in which case they will have to be shot. In this 
wild state they are likely to be pugnacious, and to frighten and 
drive off other poultry. It is also found that the wilder they 
are the noiser they will be; hence it behooves those who raise 
guineas, for their own peace of. mind, to treat them as gently 
and sympathetically as possible. 

The guinea may shriek hysterically at a shadow, and it is 
subject to peculiar nightmares — seeing ghosts and goblins; never- 
theless they are excellent guards, and for this reason alone they 
are a valuable adjunct to the barnyard. 

In buying mature guineas, the poultryman should confine them 
for about two weeks, so that they may become accustomed to 
their new home; otherwise, on giving them their freedom, they 
are very apt to take flight and never come back. The best plan 
is to purchase eggs from a reliable breeder and to raise one's 
own stock. 



36 



CHAPTER XLIV 
PIGEONS 

Fad. — Some years ago there was a big boom in the squab in- 
dustry; it became quite a fad and received a great deal of pub- 
licity. Many failed, and considerable money was lost before 
people awakened to the fact that the profits in the business had 
been greatly over-estimated, and that the care required by the 
birds, the necessary skill, was greatly underestimated. Further- 
more, there was not the demand for their products that begin- 
ners were led to expect. High prices were not sustained. 

Failures. — It is quite likely that more money has been lost 
on plants erected for the production of squabs on a large scale, 
than in any other branch of the poultry business. Stories were 
told of the great success of a few breeders; they were plausible, 
and the figures were so seductive that many unfortunate men 
and women were led to invest all their savings in ventures they 
were in no way equipped to operate. Failures became so numer- 
ous that the business was viewed askance, as a sort of joke, and 
detracted much from its real credit. If one spoke of being in the 
squab business he was apt to be regarded with suspicion. Most 
of this feeling has passed, along with the boom spirit, and left 
in its wake a great deal of knowledge of practical value. 

Profits. — There is profit to be made from the breeding of 
pigeons, just as there is a profit to be had from chickens or from 
ducks, but we would not advise the amateur to expect to make 
a fortune or even a good living at producing squabs, unless he 
is trained and equipped to operate a fairly large plant. From 
my observation, only large lofts return substantial profits, and 
most of the successful pigeon farms make a business of selling 
breeding stock, and are not devoted primarily to the production 
of squabs for market. 

562 



PROFITABLE AS SIDE LINE 



563 



My advice to the beginner would be to start with a few pairs 
of birds, and not attempt to engage in the business on a com- 
mercial scale unless experiments with a few pigeons clearly indi- 
cate a worthwhile profit and success. Fifteen pairs can be 
handled nicely in a back lot, and will help the beginner to splen- 
did working knowledge, furnish squabs for home use, and add 
to the future mating-pen. Do not plunge into the enterprise 
under any circumstances, especially if you have never had actual 
experience with livestock, and fail to appreciate that careful 




Fig- 337- — Homer pigeon. 

attention to details and the most' exacting personal supervision 
are required. 

Side Line. — On general farms, where a flock of pigeons may 
obtain the greater part of their living from the fields, they will 
return a nice revenue, at very little expense or trouble to their 
keeper. The one difficulty with a flock at large, the pigeons may 
be a nuisance to neighbors, or losses may occur by shooting and 
by cats and hawks. Many pigeons are kept as a side issue on 
general farms in the Middle West, but they are mostly of com- 



564 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

mon origin and, therefore, not worth much as squab-producers. 
Common pigeons are not so prolific, and they produce small 
squabs of poorer quality. In consequence, the average value of 
pigeons in the Middle West and in the South is only from fifteen 
to twenty-five cents apiece. Compared with the prices received 
by reliable specialty breeders, the foregoing figures are insignifi- 
cant. If a little more attention was paid to these general farm 
flocks, and a fresh supply of properly bred stock was introduced, 
they could easily be converted into a profitable side line. 

The squab is a young pigeon just before it leaves the nest, 
and is considered quite a delicacy. It makes' a delicate food for 
invalids, and is used to replace the supply of game, notably the 
quail. There is a fairly uniform demand for squabs in the large 
cities, and they bring from two dollars to six dollars per dozen, 
depending on quality and the season of the year. 

Weights of squabs run from six to eighteen pounds to the 
dozen, with nine pounds as a good average. Four to six weeks, 
depending upon the variety, the stamina of the flock, and the 
care they receive, is the time required to bring squabs to market- 
able size. When the down disappears from the head and they 
are fully feathered under the wings, these are indications of the 
correct time for killing. At this stage they are plumpest and 
heaviest. If allowed to pass this period their fat decreases, and 
the flesh that was once tender becomes hardened. They soon 
learn the use of their wings and are likely to leave the nest. 

There is a feeling that squabs must be kept stuffed with food 
from hatching time until they are ready for market. It is mar- 
velous the quantities of food they can consume without ill effects 
from lack of exercise. They just sit contentedly in the nest, 
while the parent birds feed patiently and faithfully. 

Varieties. — There are a great many varieties of pigeons, and 
though all will give squabs, only a few breeds aie used exten- 
sively for squab culture. Of these the Homer was generally 
considered the most desirable variety. See Fig. 337. It is the 
popular standard breed, hardy, prolific and of fair size. Lately 
it is being supplanted by the Carneaux. See Fig. 338. Several 



MOST POPULAR VARIETIES 



565 



other varieties, such as the King, Dragoon, Runt (see Fig. 339) 
and Maltese, which are larger than the Homer, are used in cross- 
ing to increase the size of the squabs. Crosses produce the largest 
squabs, and the practice seems to prevail. See Figs. 340 and 
341. Too much inbreeding results in degenerates and under- 
sized stock. 

The Homer derives its name from the fact that it will usually 
find its way home from distant points, even when taken under 
cover for hundreds of miles. Records of the flights of racing 




Fig. 338. — Carneaux pigeon. 

pigeons are wonderfully interesting. This characteristic makes 
it essential to confine Homers very carefully if they are pur- 
chased. They are bred very largely for racing as well as squabs, 
and come in a variety of colors. 

Strain.— As with all forms of livestock, good breeding birds are 
one of the chief essentials to success; in fact, they are the founda- 
tion of profit or loss. The beginner should secure his stock from 
reliable breeders, and wherever possible from those who will 
guarantee their products. The age and sex of pigeons are hard 



566 



COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 



to determine by casual observation, and when one considers the 
delay and loss likely to occur from unmated birds, or from stock 
so old as to be past their period of prolificacy, it becomes apparent 
that much depends upon the word of the seller. 

Unmated birds will cause a lot of trouble in a loft. Unlike 
poultry, pigeons are monogamous; they mate in pairs, and 
usually remain devoted for life. Obviously, the experienced 
breeder sees to it that his birds are properly mated, either 




Fig. 339. — White runt, female pigeon. 



naturally or by special methods. The presence of unmated 
males means fighting and jealousy. 

Unscrupulous dealers sell anything as mated birds. Some 
claim that so long as there is a male and a female they are re- 
lieved of any responsibility for further devotion. An authority 
on squab raising has this to say about mated pigeons: "A mated 
pair of pigeons consists of a male and female that have built a 
nest, laid eggs and hatched a pair of squabs which are fit for 
market in four weeks from the time of hatching. The only safe 
way in buying breeders is to get a written guarantee that they 



AGE OF BREEDERS 



567 



are mated, and a list showing the pairs. The purchaser who buys 
birds thus represented has a right to expect that they have 
actually been mated, and will prove it by going to work and 
rearing squabs." 

Production Age. — Pigeons are most productive between the 
age of two and six years. The larger varieties will breed at the 
age of eight months, smaller breeds at six months. They are 
sometimes serviceable as old as ten years, but this is the excep- 
tion. A good rule is dispose of old breeders at regular intervals. 




Fig. 340. — Runt cross pigeon. 



If one does not wish to buy mated birds, a good plan is to 
secure young stock, about eight weeks old, and mate them at 
the proper age. Squabs intended for breeders should be leg- 
banded before they are old enough to leave the nest, and a rec- 
ord kept of their breeding. Otherwise it is difficult, and a matter 
of chance, to prevent inbreeding. Later, when the sex is defi- 
nitely determined, the males are banded on one leg, usually the 



568 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

right leg, and the females on the left leg, to distinguish the sex 
of the birds in the pens. 

The mating-pen is a separate compartment through which new 
pairs are added to the regular lofts. In it the young pigeons, 
males and females, are placed, also the doubtful pairs. Here the 
young birds reach maturity, and after an interesting courtship 
they choose partners. This is usually indicated by the male 



Fig. 341. — Runt cross pigeon. 

driving and pecking at the female. If properly mated, the pair 
will start to erect their nest, and they will be found together at 
night, whereas unmated members of the pen generally remain 
alone. 

Discerning Sex. — It takes a very keen observer and one in- 
timately versed in pigeon ways to discern the sexes before pair- 
ing, and even after the courtship has started experienced breeders 



LIVING QUARTERS ARE SIMPLE 569 

are sometimes deceived in their selection of the male bird. The 
male is apt to be larger and more active in the love-making, and 
his voice is more guttural and his expression more masculine — 
more determined. 

It is customary for the first squabs to be reared in the mating- 
pen, after which the parent birds are permanently leg-banded 
and numbered and removed to their permanent quarters on 
the farm. This is the natural method of mating birds. 

The forced method of mating consists in confining a male and 
female in a mating coop, a cage about three feet long and twelve 
to fifteen inches high and the same in depth, with a wire parti- 
tion in the center which can be removed or hinged back as 
desired. The hen is placed in one side and the cock in the other, 
where they can watch and study each other at close range for 
a week or ten days, and become enamoured of each other's charms. 
The partition is then removed, and if they take to each other's 
society and the mating is successful, they are taken from the 
mating coop and given their freedom in one of the regular pens. 
This method is used successfully, and is of practical benefit 
where special matings are desired. For example, some matings 
produce undesirable qualities in the squabs, in which case it 
becomes necessary to cull the flock and remate along other lines. 

Quarters. — Pigeons are accommodating creatures; they will 
adapt themselves to almost every condition, from the eaves of 
the barn to the nests of a well-appointed loft. They do best, 
of course, in quarters that are fairly roomy, dry, well-ventilated 
and sunshiny. Almost any style of building can be converted 
into a satisfactory pigeon loft with very few modifications. To 
avoid dampness the location should be well drained. A southern 
or southeastern exposure is best, and the same general principles 
that apply to hen houses also apply to pigeon lofts. The walls 
and roof should be tightly constructed to prevent leaks and drafts, 
and above everything else the house must be proof against rats. 
These pests are notorious thieves in a pigeon loft, killing hun- 
dreds of young birds and destroying the eggs. 

Arrangement of House. — It is customary to divide the house 



570 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

into pens holding from twenty to seventy-five pairs, and to have 
a narrow passageway or alley in the rear of the building con- 
necting with the pens, feed-house and other conveniences. Two 
to three square feet of floor space per pair is sufficient room if a 
number of pairs are kept in the pen. When pigeons are confined, 
which is customary on the large squab plants, outdoor flyways 
or covered yards are necessary. These are generally located on 
the south side of the building, and are made eight or ten feet 
high, twenty to thirty feet deep, and extend across the widths of 
the pens. They should be covered on top and sides with inch 
mesh netting to keep out the sparrows, which will otherwise 
come in swarms and eat much of the food. 

Alighting Boards. — A six-inch board or shelf should be placed 
along the two ends and possibly one side of the flyway, for the 
pigeons to alight upon, but it is not considered advisable to erect 
roosts across the center of the flyway. The pigeons are apt to 
strike against them and be injured. A few holes are cut in the 
front of the house at a convenient height, say, about five feet 
from the ground, for the pigeons to enter and leave the building. 
These need only be about four inches high and three inches 
wide, and three or four to a pen are sufficient. Lighting boards, 
six inches wide, similar to the perches in the flyways, should be 
placed in convenient relation to these holes, on the inside and 
outside of the house. 

The other interior fixtures are very simple, and they should 
be made as easy to clean as possible. Two nest boxes are pro- 
vided for each pair, in recognition of the fact that they often 
run two families at one time. They frequently start to lay eggs 
in the second nest, while ministering to the needs of a pair of 
squabs in the first nest. It is a good plan to have a few extra 
nests. 

Each nest should be not less than twelve inches square. They 
may be built in tiers, but not made to extend above the level 
of the eye, else it will be difficult to clean and inspect them. 
Undersized nests offer cramped quarters and are a source of 
trouble to birds and attendant alike. 



FEEDING METHODS • 571 

Cleanliness is the slogan in pigeon raising, the same as in 
keeping any form of livestock. An abundant supply of drinking 
water must be kept before the birds at all times, and it must be 
pure and fresh. All food must be placed before the birds in a 
wholesome condition, and they must have grit, oyster shells 
and charcoal, also salt. Fountains in which the pigeons cannot 
bathe are best for drinking vessels, while a galvanized iron pan 
three or four inches deep and about twenty inches in diameter 
makes a good bath pan. Baths are usually furnished about three 
times a week, and except at these times the pans are removed. 

Feeding. — Many varieties of grains are used in feeding pigeons. 
A good grain ration may be made from the following: equal 
parts by weight of cracked corn (sifted), hard red wheat, kafir 
corn and Canada peas, with a small quantity, perhaps ten per 
cent, of hemp and millet seed added during the molting season. 
Canada peas are expensive, but for best results they seem to be 
indispensable, especially during the breeding season. They 
seem to take the place of green feed. Other grains which may 
be added to the ration are peanuts, which are used to some 
extent in place of Canada peas, hulled oats, Egyptian corn, 
barley, cowpeas, and milo maize. In addition to these a small 
amount of stale bread, rape, rice, vetch and sunflower seed may 
be fed for variety. Lentils are sometimes fed as a tonic to 
breeding birds during the molting period. 

The grain may be fed on the floor of the pen, in troughs or 
kept before the birds in hoppers. It is not well to feed the grain 
outdoors on the ground for fear that it may become moldy and 
sour. 

The young of pigeons are fed by the parent birds on a thick, 
creamy mixture, called pigeon milk, which is secreted in the 
crops of the pigeons. The squabs are usually fed shortly after 
the grown birds have eaten, consequently great care should be 
exercised not to disturb the breeders at this time. In fact, all 
the work about the pens should be accomplished in a quiet, 
orderly manner, and in as few visits as possible, for pigeons are 
easily alarmed. It is poor judgment to enter the lofts at night, 



57? COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 

especially with a light. The hen pigeons are likely to be fright- 
ened from their nests, and in the darkness fail to find them again, 
consequently chilled eggs and fewer squabs will result. 

Squabs intended for market should be caught in the morning 
before they are fed by their parents, so that their crops will be 
empty. They are killed in the same manner as poultry, by cut- 
ting the arteries in the back of the roof of the mouth and pierc- 
ing the brain, then bled, after which the feathers and down are 
plucked clean, with the exception of the head. To pluck eight 
squabs an hour is good work, though there are some experts 
who claim a record of fourteen. 

Packing. — Squabs should be cooled the same as other poultry, 
either by plunging them in cold water, or by hanging them in a 
cool place. If the crops contain any food, it may be advisable 
to cut them open and clean it out. When the birds are thor- 
oughly chilled they are carefully graded as to size and color, 
and packed for shipment in buckets with perforated bottoms. 
Pack them with their breasts up, in layers, with paraffin paper 
between the layers, and a generous supply of cracked ice through- 
out the entire package. 

Naturally, the production of squabs from each pair of breed- 
ers varies widely, much the same as the egg yield will vary on a 
chicken farm. They are known to yield ten or twelve pairs a 
year. This is exceptional; a fair average would be seven pairs. 
They sell at the highest prices during cold weather, for pigeons 
do not breed so freely in the winter months. 



INDEX 



Abnormal eggs, 402 
Accounts, record of, 95 
Aconite, tincture, 475 
Adaptable hovers, 301 
Advertising, value of, 82 

on egg cases, 9 1 
African geese, 530 
Agglutination test, 508 
Ailments, poultry, 471 
Air cell in egg, 269 
Albumen, egg, 395 
Alfalfa pasture, 227 

shredded, 222 
American class, breeds, 53 
Analysis of breeds, 1 1 
Anatomy of fowl, 458 
Anconas, 34 
Andalusians, 33 
Animal foods, 215 
Appetite, 185 
Appliances, poultry, 144 
Artificial brooding, 295 

incubation, 235 
Asafetida, 482 
Aseels, White, 40 
Ash feeds, 188 
Asiatic class, breeds, 46 
Asparagus chickens, 351 
Assimilation of food, 189 
Asthenia, 477 

Automatic feeders, 151, 180 
Aylesbury ducks, 524 



B 

Baby chick industry, 270 
Backyard plant, 10 
Bacterium pullorum, 502 
Bagging down, 478 
Baking soda, 474 
Balanced rations, 184 
Baldness, 479 
Bantams, 70 



573 



Barley feed, 199 

ground, 212 
Barrels, water, 149 
Beard, 68 

Beet pulp, dried, 223 
Beets, mangel, 229 
Bench picking, 434 
Bi-carbonate of soda, 474 
Bird pox, 480 
Bismuth nitrate, 475 
Blackhead, 478 
Black Spanish, 32 
Black turkey, 542 
Bleeding fowls, 354 
Blood clots, 404 
Bloody eggs, 404 
Bloom on egg shell, 395 
Bone cutter, 181 

granulated, 217 

green cut, 217 
Booted shank, 69 
Bourbon Red turkey, 541 
Braekels, 41 
Brahmas, Dark, 48 

Light, 47 
Bran, 209 
Brassiness, 64 
Bread crumbs, 316 
Breaking up broodiness, 339 
Breeding, aim in, 372 

capacity, 378 

color tests, 380 

conduct, 382 

cross, 374 

depth of abdomen, 378 

heavy-laying strain, 377 

hybrids, 374 

importance of male, 382 

late molters, 382 

line, 372 

Maine experiment, 385 

mongrels, 376 

naked truths, 387 

number of males required, 
385 



574 



INDEX 



Breeding, out-, 373 

pelvic bones, 378 

prepotency, 384 
Brewers' grains, 212 
Broiler plant, 129 
Broilers, squab, 351 
Bronchitis, 478 
Bronze turkey, 540 
Brooders, careless operation, 298 

colony, 301 

common defects in, 298 

fireless, 300 

fuel for, 306 

hot water, 300 

houses, 307 

hovers, individual, 301 

stoves, 303 

thermometer, 310 
Broodiness, 339 

coops for breaking up, 345 

loss of plumage in, 344 

time lost in, 343 
Brooding, artificial, 295 

hover breaking, 310 

methods of, 299 

requirements of, 298 

systems, 296 
Broody hen coop, 141 
Broom corn seed, 201 
Buckeyes, 61 
Buckwheat, 200 

bran, 212 

middlings, 212 
Buff turkey, 542 
Building construction, 109 
Bulky food, need for, 207 
Bumble foot, 479 
Business principles, 82 
Buttercups, Sicilian, 81 
By-products, poultry, 445 



Cabbage, 229 

Cabinet, egg, revolving, 260 
Calluses, corns, 479 
Calomel, 475 
Camphor, spirits of, 475 
Campines, 38 
Canadian geese, 531 
Canker, 480 
Cannibalism, 324 
Capacity, abdominal, 378 
Caponizing, 358 



Caponizing, best breeds for, 361 
dressing capons, 362 
instruments, 363. 
losses, 368 
operation, 364 
slips, 369 

Carbohydrates, 191 

Carbolated vaseline, 475 

Carneaux pigeon, 565 

Castor oil, 474 

Castration, 358 

Catarrh, 480 

Catching hook, 162 

Cellar, incubator, 243 

Cement floors, 119 

Census, poultry, 19 10, 3 

Chalaza, 395 

Charcoal, 221 

Chart of poultry production, 4 

Chicken pox, 480 

Chickens, origin of, I 

composition of, 186 

Chicks, care of, 325 

destroy dead bodies, 333 
essentials to health, 322 
feeds for, 312 
growth of, 313 
habits, bad, 323 
learning to eat, 315 
on range, 325 
over-crowding, 326 
over- feeding, 313 
rations for, 321 
runs and yards, 131 
scavengers, 333 
scratch grains for, 318 
unlimited feed, 328 
water for, 322 

Chinese geese, 531 

Cholera, 480 

Cleanliness, 132 

Clipping wings, 469 

Clover, pasture, 227 

short cut, 223 

Coal ashes, 517 

Cochins, 49 

Cockerels, fattening, 349 
surplus, 347 

Cold storage eggs, 436 

Colds, 480 

Colony brooders, 301 

Color breeding tests, 380 

Colored Egyptian geese, 532 

Composite birds, 63 



INDEX 



575 



Composition of eggs, 256 
Concrete floors, 119 
Condiments, 221 
Conditioning show birds, 460 
Contagious diseases, 471 
Cooker, feed, 183 
Cooling eggs, 254 
Coop, broody hen, 141 
Corn-and-cob-meal, 211 
Corn feed, 197 

meal, 210 
Cornell rations, 196 
Cornish fowls, 75 
Cottonseed meal, 212 
Cow peas, 201 
Cracked peas, 223 
Cramming, 350 
Crate fattening, 350 
Cremating dead fowls, 338 
Crested fowls, 70 
Crevecoeurs, 37, 69 
Crop bound, 480, 486 

location and function, 486 
Cross-breeding, 374 
Crowding chicks, 326 
Crows, 325 
Crude fiber, 191 

oil, 5H 
Curtain frames, 124 
Custom hatching, 270 
Cutter, bone, 181 

hay, 182 

vegetable, 182 

D 

Dampness, effects of, 117 

Dark Brahmas, 48 

Day-old chicks, 270 

advantages to beginners, 275 
appeal to farmers, 280 
custom hatching, 270 
development of industry, 

270 
few complaints, 281 
guarantees, 282 
hatcheries, 272 
mortality, 279 
objections to, 280 
origin of industry, 271 
pet shop trade, 279 
shipping methods, 277 
specialization, 274 

Depluming mites, 483 



Design of houses, 109 
Destroying dead bodies, 333 
Detention coop, 473 
Devices for doors and gates, 153 
Diagnosis of disease, 471 
Diarrhea, 480, 502 
Diet, controlling, 208 
Digestible nutrients, 184 
Digestive organs, 392 
Dirt floor, 118 
Diseases, 471 
Disinfectants, 476, 516 
Dislocation, killing by, 547 
Doctoring poultry, 471 
Dominiques, 61 
Doors, 125 

checks for, 160 

devices for, 153 

early-rising, 155 

rat-proof, 158 

securing stake for, 163 

self-closing, 160 
Dorkings, 67 
Double matings, 41 
Double-yolk eggs, 391 
Drainage, ill 
Dressing poultry, 354 
Dried blood meal, 217 
Drinking vessels, 144 
Drones, 96 

Dropping-boards, 134 
Droppings, care of, 445 
Dry mash feeding, 206 
Dry-picking poultry, 354 
Dual-purpose breeds, 53 
Dubbing game birds, 73 
Ducks, breeding of, 519 
Dust bath, 143 
Dusting sitting hens, 291 

E 

Early-rising door, 155 
Economic factors, 16 
Educational exhibitions, 457 
Egg, bloom of, 395 

bound, 394 

breeds, 23 

cells, 339, 390 

determination of shape, 395 

development, 266, 390 

diagram of, sectional, 396 

eating habit, 481 

evaporation, 269 



576 



INDEX 



Egg, fertility, 259, 399 

shell membrane, 395 
shell texture, 396 
shrinkage, 419 
storage places, 408 
testing, 263 
trade terms, 424 
wastage, 409 

Eggs, abnormalities in, 402 
blood clots in, 404 
bloody, 404 
body-held, 393 
breakage of, 412 
cabinet for hatching, 260 
chalaza, 395 
club plan of selling, 435 
cold storage, 436 
composition of, 186, 256, 401 
construction of, 263 
cooling hatching, 254 
double-yolk, 391 
embryology of, 263, 390 
external influences on, 407 
farm losses in, 421 
freshness of hatching, 261 
general store, 421 
gravity test of, 409 
heat losses in, 419 
ideal type of, 259 
infertile, 420 
life germ in, 265 
market grades of, 416 
marketing practices, 400 
middleman's charges, 426 
ovary, 391 
ovisac, 391 

parcel post trade in, 433 
prices on, 423 
private trade in, 433 
popular fallacies concerning, 

264 
preserving, 436 
prolific power, 390 
retailing troubles in, 428 
selecting hatching, 256 
signs of life in, 266 
sterile hens, 390 
tester, electric, 265 
testers for, 268 
turning hatching, 252 
unscrupulous methods, 431 
vitelline membrane, 397 
vitellus, 398 
water glass treatment of, 436 



Egyptian geese, 532 
Elements for success, 88 
Emden geese, 529 
English breeds, 61 
Enteritis, 481 
Enterohepatitis, 478 
Epsom salts, 474 
Equipping poultry houses, 144 
Exhibitions, poultry, 457 
Export trade in eggs, 6 



Fancier, 457 
Farm poultry, 7 
Fats, food, 189 
Fattening crate, 352 

methods, 349 
Faverolles, 68 
Favus, white comb, 482 
Feather-eating habit, 482 

pulling habit, 491 
Feathers, by-products, 452 

drying and curing, 455 

goose, 537 

value of, 456 
Feed, alfalfa, shredded, 222 

animal, 215 

ash, 188 

barley, 199 

beet pulp, 223 

beets, 229 

bills, 98 

bins, 179 

bran, 209 

broom corn seed, 201 

buckwheat, 200 
bran, 212 

cabbage, 229 

carbohydrates in, 191 

charcoal, 221 

clover, 223 

composition of, 189 

condimental, 221 

cooker, 183 

corn, 197 

-and-cob meal, 211 
meal, 210 

cottonseed meal, 212 

cow peas, 201 

cracked peas, 223 

digestibility of, 185 

dried blood, 217 

fats in, 189 



INDEX 



577 



Feed, fiber in, 191 

field peas, 201 
fish scrap, 218 
flour, 210 
gluten, 211 

meal, 211 
granulated bone, 217 
green, 215 

cut bone, 217 
grit, 234 
ground barley, 212 

oats, 212 
hominy chop, 211 

meal, 211 
houses, 175 
kafir corn, 201 
linseed meal, 212 
meat scrap, 215 
middlings, wheat, 210 
milk, 219 

albumen, 218 
granulated, 218 
whey, 220 
millet, 202 
milo maize, 201 
mineral, 232 
mixer, power, 181 
mixing, 180 
nutrients in, 190 
oats, 198 
oil meal, 212 
onions, 229 
oyster shells, 234 
palatability of, 185 
potatoes, 231 
protein, 187 
rice, 200 
rye, 200 
salt, 220 
screenings, 197 
shorts, 210 
sorghum seed, 201 
soy beans, 201 
sprouted oats, 231 
storage, 178 
succulent, 224 
sunflower seed, 202 
Swiss chard, 229 
tankage, 217 
vegetables, 231 
waste fruits, 231 
wheat, 193 
Feeders, automatic, 180 
Feeding chicks, 312 

37 



Feeding, flour, 210 
forced, 206 
methods, 175 
overhead track, 177 
rations, Cal. Ex. Sta., 210 
Cornell, 196 
Ind. Ex. Sta., 227 
Maine Ex. Sta., 206 
N. J. Ex. Sta., 205 
S. C. Ex. Sta., 211 
Storrs, Conn., 220 
records, 104 
simplicity, 175 
Females, number to one male, 385 
Fencing, 126 
Fertility in eggs, 399 
Fertilizer formulas, hen manure, 451 
Field peas, 201 
Fifth toe, 67 
Fireless brooders, 300 
Fish scrap, 218 
Flight feathers, 470 
Flocks, large or small, 112 
Floors, house, 118 
Foodstuffs, grouping of, 193 
Formalin for oats, 232 
Foundations for poultry houses, 118 
Framing poultry houses, 119 
French breeds, 37 
Frizzles, 80 



Gallus bankiva, 3 
Games, "J2 

bantams, 74 
Gapes, worms, 482, 500 
Gas tar, 475 
Gastric juice, 207 
Gate devices, 159 
Geese, raising, 528 
General-purpose breeds, 53 
Gizzard, 493 

action of, 207 
Gluten, feed, 211 

meal, 211 
Going light, 477 
Goslings, care of, 535 
Grains, composition of, 189 
Granulated bone, 217 
Grasses for pasture, 228 
Gravity test for eggs, 409 
Gray African geese, 530 

wild geese, 531 



578 



INDEX 



Green cut bone, 217 
foods, 215 

composition of, 225 
Grit, 234 

Growing stock, care of, 325 
Guinea fowls, 554 



H 

Hamburgs, 35 
Hatcheries, 272 
Hatching, artificial, 235 

natural, under hens, 283 
Hay cutter, 182 
Health, fowl, 471 
Heat losses in eggs, 419 
Heavy-laying strain, 376 
Hen coops, 283 

manure, 445 
Homer pigeon, 564 
Hominy chop, 211 
Hook, catching, 162 
Hoppers, mash, 144 

plans for, 151 
Houdans, 37 
House, appliances, poultry, 144 

brooder, 307 

cleanliness, 132 

colony plan, in 

construction of, 109 

continuous, in 

cost of, 112 

curtain frames, 124 

doors, 125 

floors, 118 

glass windows, 124 

interior, 132 

location of, .109 

nests, 138 

perches, 134 

roofs, 116 

size of, 114 

warmth of, 1-13 

windows, 124 
Hover breaking, 310 
Hovers, brooding, 301 
Hybrids, 374 



Icing dressed poultry, 357 
Illness, indications of, 471 
In-breeding, 372 
Incubation, artificial, 235 



Incubation, care of lamp, 246 

cellar, 243 

cooling eggs, 254 

gas heater, 249 

heat control, 248 

loading trays, 251 

moisture, 238 

records of, 101 

regulating flame, 247 

selecting hatching eggs, 256 

temperature, 239 

thermometer, 240 

turning eggs, 252 
Incubation, natural, 283 

best sitters, 288 

dusting sitters, 291 

feeding sitters, 292 

privacy, 284 

quarters for hens, 289 

sitting hens, 283 

stolen nests, 283 

testing sitters, 288 

vermin, 284 
Incubators, erection of, 244 

leveling, need for, 241 

makes of, 236 

mammoth, 237 

oil machines, 236 
Indian Runner ducks, 523 
Indigestion, 482 
Infertile eggs, 420 
Information on breeding, 99 
Instruments for caponizing, 363 
Interior of buildings, 132 
Intestinal worms, 495 
Investment in buildings, 109 



Japanese fowls, 80 
Javas, 60 
Jersey Blues, 34 
Johnny-cake, recipe for, 317 

K 



Kafir corn, 201 
Killing methods, 354 



Labor-saving, 109 
La Fleche fowls, 37, 69 
Lakenvelders, 28 
Lamp, incubator, 246 



INDEX 



579 



Land suitable for poultry, in 

Langshans, 51 

Laws of breeding, 372 

Lay bones, 378 

Laying houses, 109 

Leaks, business, 95 

Leg bands, 101 

Leghorns, 25 

Leg-weakness, 482 

Letters, business, importance of, 89 

Lettuce, 224 

Lice, 482, 509 

powders, 513 
Light Brahmas, 47 
Limber neck, 482 
Lime, 514 
Line-breeding, 372 
Linseed meal, 212 
Litter for floors, 117 
Litters, eggs in series, 339 
Liver pills, 475 
Long-tailed Yokohamas, 80 

M 

Magnesia, sulphate of, 475 
Mail, importance of answering, 89 
Maine breeding experiment, 385 
Malays, 75 

bantams, 78 
Males, importance of, 382 

number required, 385 
Mammoth incubators, 244 
Mange, 483 
Mangel wurtzels, 229 
Manure, 445 

absorbent for, 449 

acid phosphate, 449 

formulas for crops, 451 

kainit, 449 
Marketing eggs, 400 
Marking chicks, 102 

poultry shipments, 357 
Mash constituents, 208 

hoppers, 144, 188 

mixer, power, 182 
Materials for buildings, 109 
Meat breeds, 46 

scrap, 215 

guaranteed analysis, 

216 
testing, 216 
Medical attendance, 471 
Medicines, 474 



Mediterranean class, 23 

Mercantile Exchange, New York, 417 

Mexican turkey, 539 

Middlings, wheat, 210 

Milk, albumen, 218 

feeding, 219 

for chicks, 317 

granulated, 218 

whey, 220 
Millet seed, 202 
Milo maize, 201 
Mineral foods, 232 
Minorcas, 29 
Mites, 483, 509 
Mixing feeds, 180 
Moisture in incubators, 238 
Molt, 344 
Molters, late, 382 
Mongrelism, 376 
Mottled Anconas, 34 
Muscovy ducks, 521 
Muslin curtains, 124 

N 

Narragansett turkey, 540 
Natural incubation, 283 
Nests, batteries of, 171 

construction of, 138 

location of, 138 

Maine trap, 171 

single-compartment trap, 
172 

Storrs' trap, 167 

trap, 166 

two-compartment trap, 173 
Nitrogen free extract, 191 

in manure, 447 
Nomenclature of fowls, 458 
North American turkey, 539 
Noted centres of production, 7 
Nutrients, 190 
Nutritive ratio denned, 184 
Nux vomica, tincture of, 475 

O 

Oats, feed, 198 

ground, 212 
sprouted, 231 

formalin, 232 
mold, 232 
rack for, 230 
Ocellated turkey, 539 
Oil meal, 212 



580 



INDEX 



Olive^oil, 488 

Onions, 229 

Operation for caponizing, 364 

for crop bound, 486 
Organs, digestive, 392 

reproductive, female, 390 
Ornamental breeds, 70 
Orpingtons, 61 
Out-breeding, 373 
Ovary, 391 

Over-crowding chicks, 326 
Overfeeding chicks, 313 
Oviduct, 391 
Oyster shells, 234 



Packages, shipping, 93 

Painting perches, 514 

Parasites, 483, 509 

Parcel post shipments, eggs, 433 

Pasting-up in chicks, 483, 504 

Pearl guineas, 556 

Peas, feeding, 223 

Pekin ducks, 519 

Pelvic bones, 378 

Pens, types of, 114 

Perches, 132 

Permanganate of potash, 476 

Petaluma district, 2 

Pigeons, 562 

Plucking methods, 354 

Plumping, 355 

Plymouth Rocks, 53 

Polish fowls, 70 

Potatoes, 231 

Poultry, aim of, 17 

appliances, 144 

breeds of, 1 

business principles, 82 

census 1910, 3 

chart of production, 4 

diseases, 471 

distribution areas, 7 

divisions, I 

egg breeds, 23 

export trade, 6 

general discussion on, 16 

general-purpose breeds, 53 

house construction, 109 

meat breeds, 46 

ornamental breeds, 70 

pasture, 126 

place in animal kingdom, 1 



Poultry remedies, 471 

scope of industry, 3 
Standard of Perfection, 11 
standard varieties, 1 1 
value of products, 5 
weights of, 20 

Poults, care of, 551 

Preparing birds for exhibitions, 457 

Prepotency, breeding, 384 

Preserving eggs, 436 

fence posts, 131 

Prices on eggs and poultry, 6 

Primary flight feathers, 470 

Principles of breeding, 372 

Printed matter, 88 

Protein, 187 

Publicity, 94 

Pullets, growth of, 330 
maturity, 331 

Pure-bred fowls, 374 





Qualifications of poultryman, 82 
Quarters, roosting, 134 
Quicklime, 333 
Quinine, 475 



R 

Range, 325 

Rape, 228 

Rations, feeding for chicks, 312 

for mature stock, 175 
Rats, protection against, 158 
Records, 95 
Redcaps, 44 
Red mites, 509 
Remedies, poultry, 471 
Reproductive organs, 390 
Reputation, importance of, 91 
Rhode Island Reds, 58 

Whites, 60 
Rice feed, 200 
Road dust, 518 
Rochelle salts, 474 
Roofs, poultry buildings, 116 
Roosting compartments, 132 

curtains, 137 
Rouen ducks, 525 
Roup, 483 
Runner ducks, 523 
Running water, 144 



INDEX 



581 



Runt pigeons, 566 
Rye feed, 200 



Salt, 220 

Scabies, 483 

Scalding poultry, 354 

Scaly leg, 485 

Scope of poultry industry, 3 

Scratch grains, 175 

Screenings, 197 

Secondary feathers, 470 

Sections of a fowl, 458 

Shade, 545 

Shell boxes, 144 

Shipping crates, exhibition, 467 

dressed poultry, 357 
Shorts, middlings, 210 
Show place, 85 

room, 457 
Sicilian Buttercups, 81 
Sickness, 471 
Sign, advertising, 86 
Silkies, 80 
Sitting hens, 283 
Skeleton of a fowl, 468 
Skim milk, 219 
Slate turkey, 542 
Slips, caponizing, 369 
Soil conditions, ill 
Sore head, 485 
Sorghum seed, 201 
Soy beans, 201 
Spanish, Black, 32 
Sports, 63 

Spraying disinfectants, 514 
Squab broilers, 351 
Squabs, pigeons, 562 
Standard of Perfection, 11 
Standard varieties, 11 
Stapling netting, 130 
Sterile hens, 390 
Sticking and bleeding, 354 
Stoves, brooder, 303 
Stubs, 63 
Success, 88 

Succulence, green food, 224 
Sultans, 72 
Sumatras, 75 
Sunflower seed, 202 
Sunlight, importance of, 112 
Surplus cockerels, 347 
Swiss chard, 229 



System of records, 96 

of feeding, 175 



Tankage, 217 

Tapeworms, 496 

Tar, gas, 475 

Taste, poultryman's choice, 16 

Tell-tale records, 107 

Temperature of brooders, 304 

of incubators, 239 
Testicles, caponizing, 366 
Testing hatching eggs, 263 

marketing eggs, 409 
Thermometer, incubator, 240 

testing, 241 
Thermostat, 238 
Throw-backs, 63 
Toe-marking, 103 
Tonic, formula for, 476 
Toulouse geese, 529 
Trade-mark, 89 
Training for exhibitions, 460 
Trap nests, 166 
Trays, loading incubator, 251 
Turkeys, raising, 538 
Turning eggs in incubation, 252 
Turpentine, spirits of, 475 
Types of pens, 114 



U 

Uniformity of eggs, 399 
Unit of cost for protein, 187 
U. S. Census, 1910, 3 
Utility breeds, 16 



Value of poultry, 5 
Varieties, standard, 1 1 
Vegetable cutter, 182 
Vegetables for green food, 231 
Vent gleet, 485 
Ventilation of houses, 124 
Vermifuge, 495 
Vermin, 509 
Vineland district, 7 
Visitors on poultry plant, 86 
Vitelline membrane, 397 
Vitellus, 398 



582 



INDEX 



W 

Walls, poultry house, 123 
Washing show birds, 457 
Wastage in eggs, 409 
Water barrels, 149 

fountains, 144 

glass, 436 

pipes, 147 

supply, 145 

trough system, 150 
Web feathers, 470 
Weights of fowls, 20 
Wet mash, 206 
Wheat as a poultry feed, 193 

bran, 209 

flour, 210 

middlings, 210 

screenings, 197 
When to build, 117 
Whey, milk, 220 



White Aseels, 40 
White-comb, favus, 482 
White diarrhea, 485, 502 
White-Faced Black Spanish, 32 
White Holland turkeys, 541 
Whitewashing, 514 
Windows, 124 
Wing bands, 103 
Wings, clipping, 469 
Wire netting, erecting, 126 
Worms, 485, 495 
Wyandottes, 56 



Yards, base boards, 128 

space required, 126 
top rails, 128 

Yokohamas, Long-tailed, 42, 80 

Yolk, egg, 390 

Young stock on range, 325 






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